A NEW METHODOLOGY PROPOSAL for URBAN REGENERATION of BROWNFIELD AREAS; CASE STUDY of ZONGULDAK CITY, TURKEY By Mustafa ERGEN A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Spatial Planning of Dortmund University of Technology in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.) DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Prof. Dipl-Ing. Christa REICHER, TU Dortmund Prof. Dr. Dietwald GRUEHN, TU Dortmund Prof. Dr. M. Ilgar KIRZIOĞLU, Süleyman Demirel University Date of Defense: 7 March 2013 DORTMUND, 2013 i DECLARATION I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Surname: Mustafa ERGEN ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to mention my appreciation to all those who gave me the opportunity to complete this thesis. First of all, I would like to extend a very special thanks to my supervisor Prof. Dipl-Ing. Christa REICHER. I would like to thank her for her encouragement and for giving me the opportunity to study on this topic with her. I especially would like to express my deepest indebted to my supervisor Prof. Dipl-Ing. Christa REICHER for her effort and time to complete my dissertation. It was a great chance to have Prof. Dr. Dietwald GRUEHN as a second supervisor of my dissertation. His comments and suggestions make this research valuable and important in a scientific manner. I am very grateful to Prof. Dr. Dietwald GRUEHN for spending his time and for checking my dissertation. I would also like to express my deepest thanks to my examiner Prof. Dr. Ilgar KIRZIOĞLU for his valuable comments and guidance throughout my research period. It would not have been possible to complete my dissertation without his help. I want to send my great appreciation to my reader Prof. Dr. Kai TOBIAS. My dissertation would not have been possible to finish without his invaluable comments and evaluation. I am very grateful to his help for finalizing my dissertation. I also want to express my gratitude to Dr Mehdi VAZIFEDOOST here in Dortmund University of Technology. There is no word to express his friendly and warm approach to me. I would like to send my special thanks to all who works at Zonguldak Municipality, they have provided me every data throughout my research period. I would like to express my appreciation to the PhD committee for providing me to study for doctoral degree at the Dortmund University of Technology in Germany. It is also my great pleasure to send my thanks to staff and academicians for their helpful and friendly approach at the Dortmund University of Technology. The Turkish Government provided both resources and financial support. I would like to thank to the Turkish Government for their financial support that helped me to iii complete my dissertation. Finally, I would like to mention my deepest thanks and great indebted to my family [to my father (Assistant Professor Yasar Bahri ERGEN), my mother (Gülser ERGEN) and my brother (Assistant Professor Baris ERGEN) and his wife (Zeynep ERGEN)] for their patience, support and their unrequited love all the time. I also send my gratitude to my fiancé`s parents (Prof. Dr. Myslym OSMANI and Liljana OSMANI) who gave me encouragement in my dissertation period. At the end, I would like to send many thanks and my appreciation to my fiancé (Adelaida OSMANI) who gave me power to deal with the difficult circumstances in completing my dissertation. iv TABLE of CONTENTS DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... ii ABBREVIATION LIST .......................................................................................................................... vi LIST of FIGURES ................................................................................................................................ vii LIST of TABLES .................................................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................. x 1-INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. The Purpose of Investigation .................................................................................................. 6 1.2. Scientific Discussion and Planning Practice for the Problem........................................... 12 1.3. Objective of the Study ............................................................................................................ 16 1.4. Emphasis of the Investigation ............................................................................................... 19 1.5. The Subject of The Study ...................................................................................................... 20 1.6. Focus and Methodology of the Study .................................................................................. 23 2-URBAN REGENERATION PROJECTS IN THE DERELICT AREAS .................................... 27 2.1. An Evaluation of the Urban Regeneration Projects, Brownfield Problem and affects on Life Style .......................................................................................................................................... 28 2.2. Why Sustainability is Necessary for Brownfield Areas ...................................................... 29 2.3. Visual Aspect of Urban Regeneration Areas for Urban and Landscape Design .......... 34 2.4. Sample Urban Regeneration Projects in the Former Coal Mining Areas ....................... 38 2.4. Principles of Urban Regeneration Implementation ............................................................ 57 2.5. Potential Development on the Derelict Areas within Urban Regeneration Projects ..... 61 2.6. Structural Change of the Derelict Areas .............................................................................. 62 2.7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 63 3-DEFINITION OF URBAN REGENERATION AREAS IN TURKEY AND URBAN STRUCTURAL EFFECTS ................................................................................................................. 65 3.1. The Dynamics of the Urbanization in TURKEY .................................................................. 65 3.2. Effects of the Urban Life Style .............................................................................................. 72 3.3. Effects of the Urban Management System (Cooperation between local management and public) ....................................................................................................................................... 75 3.4. Effects of the Urban Structures and Urban Development ................................................ 76 3.5. Attempts of the Development Guidelines for Urban-Regional Planning Practice ......... 77 3.6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 80 4- URBAN REGENERATION AREAS and THEIR CONSTRUCTION-INTEGRATION INTO CITY; A CASE STUDY OF ZONGULDAK ...................................................................................... 82 v 4.1. Structure (Current) Situation and Development of Zonguldak  ......................................... 82 4.2. The SWOT Analysis and Grid Based Modeling (Matrix)-Hierarchical Cluster Method for Zonguldak  .................................................................................................................................. 92 4.3. Defining Zonguldak's Urban Regeneration Areas and the Decision Model of the Brownfield Design ......................................................................................................................... 127 4.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 135 5-RECOMMENDATION STRATEGIES FOR TURKISH CITY DEVELOPMENT IN AN URBAN REGENERATION CONTEXT and DE VELOPING AN ACTION MODEL FOR URBAN REGENERATION .............................................................................................................. 138 5.1. Assessment of Brownfield Effects on Nearby Cities ....................................................... 138 5.2. Action Strategies at Urbanization Level ............................................................................ 141 5.3. Developing an (Conceptual Framework) Action Model for the Implementation of Regeneration Projects ................................................................................................................. 144 5.4. Summary and Overview ....................................................................................................... 147 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 150 APPENDICIES .................................................................................................................................. 197 vi ABBREVIATION LIST CABERNET- Concerted Action on Brownfields and Economic Regeneration Network ECI - European Common Indicators EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ESDP - European Spatial Development Perspective GNP - Gross National Product IBA - International Building Exhibition SWOT - Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-Threat TTK - Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises (Türkiye Ta şk ömürü Kurumu) UK - United Kingdom USA - United States of America ZBKP - Zonguldak-Karabük-Bart ın Regional Development Project ZMA - Zonguldak Metropolitan Area (Zonguldak Metropolitan Alan ı) vii LIST of FIGURES Figure -1.1: The Brownfield Redeve lopment Project Life Cycle.................................. 8 Figure -1.2: Distance of Zonguldak City from Ankara and Istanbul ............................ 9 Figure -1.3: Between 1927 and 2000 Zongu ldak Population Situation ..................... 11 Figure -1.4: Regeneration De velopment Process ..................................................... 14 Figure -1.5: Linkages of t he Research Method ......................................................... 25 Figure -2.1: Eugene Odum`s ecosystem compartment model (196 9) ...................... 37 Figure -2.2: Planning of Spatial Strategy for South Yorkshire ................................... 43 Figure -2.3: The Manvers Regeneration Site ............................................................ 44 Figure -2.4: Location of the former mines (transparent boxes) and remaining reserves (closed boxes) in South Limburg (Mijns treek). [ON: Oranje Nassau mines.] ............ 46 Figure -2.5: Yearly Dutch Coal Production between 1847 and 197 5 ........................ 47 Figure -2.6: Overview of the Oranj e Nassau from past to present ............................ 49 Figure -2.7: IBA action area in the context of the R uhr region .................................. 52 Figure -2.8: View of Zollverein Coal Mining Industry Complex ................................. 53 Figure -2.9: Over view of Du isburg Nord Landscape Park ....................................... 54 Figure -2.10: Panoramic view fo r Duisburg Nord Landscape Park .......................... 55 Figure-3.1: The Three Magnets ................................................................................ 66 Figure-3.2: Squatter House (Gecekondu) Development in Turkish Cities ................ 70 Figure-3.3: Annual Growth Rate of P opulation in 2010 by Provinces (%) ................ 74 Figure-3.4: Turkish Planning Syst ems and Hierarchy of Plans ................................. 78 Figure-3.5: Regeneration Implementation Guidliness for Turkish Cities ................... 79 Figure-4.1: Location of Z onguldak City in Turkey ..................................................... 83 Figure-4.2: Zonguldak Po rt Comparison between Past and Present ........................ 84 Figure-4.3: Developm ent Planning Map .................................................................. 85 Figure-4.4: The View of Washing C oal Areas and Port in Zonguldak ....................... 86 Figure-4.5: Oberothermic Diagram (Zonguldak Precipitation and Temprature Analysis for 2010) ................................................................................................................... 8 7 Figure-4.6: Zonguldak and Zonguldak Regions Admi nistration Border .................... 90 Figure-4.7: Overview of Zongulda k from Past to Present ......................................... 91 viii Figure-4.8: Methodological Flow Chart for the Dissertation .................................... 100 Figure-4.9: Division of Zonguldak City GNP by Economic Sector .......................... 105 Figure-4.10: Economic Se ctors of Zonguldak City .................................................. 106 Figure-4.11: Economic Sectors of Zonguldak City Center ...................................... 107 Figure-4.12: Turkish Hard Coal Foundat ion Production from 2001 to 2005 ........... 108 Figure-4.13: Annual Popul ation Growth Rate of Zonguldak (%) ............................. 110 Figure-4.14: Zonguldak City Dis tricts Division of Urban and Rural Population (2000) ............................................................................................................................... 111 Figure-4.15: 3D View of Zonguldak Topogr aphy .................................................... 114 Figure-4.16: Aspect of Zonguldak City ................................................................... 115 Figure-4.17: Current Situation of Settlement in Zonguldak ..................................... 116 Figure-4.18: Flow Charts of Data Analysis for the Grid Based Modeling with Cluster Analysis .................................................................................................................. 120 Figure-4.19: Categorie s of Operational Geographical Units ................................... 124 Figure-4.20: Current Brownfield Areas in Zonguldak City ....................................... 128 Figure-4.21: Determination of Brownfield Areas ..................................................... 129 Figure-4.22: Old Coal Wash ing Area in Zongudak ................................................. 130 Figure-4.23: View of Coal Washing Area Development in the City Center ............. 132 Figure-4.24: View of Coal Washing Area A fter Tear Down of the Coal Washing Area ............................................................................................................................... 134 Figure-5.1: Western Black Sea Region P opulation Rate Depends on the City ....... 139 Figure-5.2: Fundamental Approach to Sust ainable Redevelopment Brownfield ..... 142 Figure-5.3: A Conceptual Model of Urban Regeneration for Turkish Cities ............ 146 ix LIST of TABLES Table-1.1: Progress of the Regenerat ion Process from 1950 to 1990 ........................2 Table-2.1: Sustainable Communities’ Components ................................................... 32 Table-2.2: The definition of Brownfield Areas in Western Europe Countries ............. 39 Table-2.3: Potential of Brownfield Sites in Uk , Germany and Netherland .................. 40 Table-2.4: Transformation of Func tions from Former Mining Areas .......................... 41 Table-2.5: Analysis table for Manvers Regeneration Project ..................................... 44 Table-2.6: Analysis Table for Oranje Nassau Regeneration Project.......................... 48 Table-2.7: Population Development in Selected German Cities between 1990 and 2004 ......................................................................................................................... 50 Table-2.8: Analysis Table for Duisburg Nord Landscape Park and Zollverein Coal Mining Industry Complex Regeneration Project ........................................................ 56 Table-4.1: Zonguldak City 1990-2 000 Population Gr owth Rate .............................. 109 Table-4.2: Analysis of High Zo nes in Zonguldak City Center .................................. 113 Table-4.3: Variables Similarity Ratio ........................................................................ 121 Table-4.4: Probabi lity Matrix .................................................................................... 123 Table-4.5: Cluster Description Matrix ...................................................................... 124 Table-5.1: Zonguldak city Popul ation Rate Depends on Turkey .............................. 140 x ABSTRACT The study focuses on environmental impacts of abandoned urban areas and provides a solution to this problem through scientific methods. Many cities often suffer from lack of sustainable regulations and a successful approach to the urban development. In order to have a successful approach, urban regeneration might prove to be a valid solution for abandoned areas. However, cities still do not have a definite or proper solution for abandoned areas. Therefore, this study conducts a quantitative (Grid Ba sed Model-Hierarchical Cluster Analysis) and qualitative (Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-Threat [SWOT]) analysis with a specific focus on potential solutions for Brownfield areas. The detailed study has placed emphasis on appropriate development for the cities. This practice of urban development has defined healthy and sustainable approaches to the cities. Various analysis techniques included wi thin the newly developed model for abandoned urban areas should provide a more clear-cut sustainable development through new mechanisms. The method employed in the study could bring a new approach to the urban design application. This study includes comprehensive ecological, economic and social analyses through the method proposed as a solution for abandoned industrial areas. This approach ext ends as far as urban regeneration projects through spatial analyses. The purpose of this study is to explore and provide an approach to solutions for Brownfield areas. The embracing qu antitative and qualitative methods contribute to a growing knowledge on the approaches to solu tions for Brownfield areas. This scientific approach can lead to a detailed analysis of the issue. This study makes an attempt to incorporate app ropriate and sustainable urbanization into urban regeneration experiences in citi es. The methods employed in the study could emphasize the right kind of approach to and right implication for re gaining urban derelict areas in a theoretical background. Consequently, the study could emphasize an economic, social and ecological approach to abandoned areas in city development. Especially, urban abandoned areas need a new urban development approach, which, in turn, could yield a possible solution in urban regeneration project. In this study, quantitativ e and qualitative data analyses tailor on urban structure through scientific methods. And finally, to help establish a design decision model on Brownfield areas, this study puts emphasis on the approaches to solutions based on green areas standards in Turkey. Key Words: Urban Abandoned Areas, Quantitative Analys is, Grid Based Model, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, Qualitat ive Analysis, SWOT Analysis, Urban Regeneration 1 1 - INTRODUCTION The process of urbanization is undergoing a fast change. These changes have an influence on economy, ecology and social movement in cities. Currently, shrinking problem presents itself as a major problem in developed countries. In their history of urbanization, cities have achieved the greatest development during the industrial revolution. Industrial areas and its surrounding have served as settlement areas for employees as well as economic development of cities. The industrial revolution had a profound influence on the urban development until the post-industrial era started in developed countries. The economic impact on cities serves as a key point of the globalization and industrialization. Global industry must compete with their firms all over the world in order to survive in the market [1] 1. This principle is the reason for abolishing boundaries on the basis of a new industrialization approach. Industry is now located where there are chances to find the cheapest raw materials and cheapest workers in the current econo mic development. Because of this development, industrial areas have been decaying and cities in developed countries have started to suffer from industrial decline over the last two decades. Shrinking cities and Brownfield sites have gradually become a significant problem for the developed countries during this process of development. This change in land use has resulted in significantly vacant areas and derelict lands in urban areas. Vacant areas and derelict lands are among the negative results due to the breakdown of the core industries in cities. These areas should be regained through efficient uses in order to ensure appropriate and efficient environmental development. The demand for urbanization increased dramatically during the industrial revolution in the 19 th and 20 th centuries. Land use and urban sprawl were two major concerns during this period. These two factors led to common problems in urban areas. Among such problems were inefficient land uses, imbalanced development and lack of basic infrastructures. Natural areas and those areas surrounding urban areas were damaged by these problems during the industrial development. Following the industrial revolution, the post-industrialized urbanization stage began 1 These numbers (in the paragraphs and under the tables and figures) are related to the list of internet sources at the end of the dissertation. 2 which was characterized by new economic, ecological and social advances. The post-industrialized urbanization is called the era of informational industry (NI and NI, 2003) . Because of this transition from heavy industry to informational industry, there is a rapid movement towards the deindustrialization process. It should be noted that the deindustrialization process has a number of negative impacts on the urban environment. It threatens to replace the abandoned areas, derelict houses and contamination lands. In the broad process of deindustrialization, the urbanization also goes in the direction of shrinking problems. Currently, Brownfield sites present particular challenges to national and regional policymakers in terms of bringing the l and back into beneficial use and in terms of creating healthy development in the cities (FERBER and GRIMSKI, 2002) . In this context, the solution to the Brownfield process makes an attempt to manage environmental restoration and to create sustainable land planning and economic policy. The particular point is that a successful Brownfield redevelopment provides a combination of economic, ecological and social approaches that can be integrated into solutions. The process of urbanization leads to many problems in demographic, social and economic development. The approaches to solutions for the problems offer a guide or attempt to appropriate solutions step by step for further development. The diagnosis of shrinking cities is depict ed to explain regener ation projects or approaches. At this point, regeneration projects or approaches are gradually proving to be the only solution in terms of using a combination of economic, ecological and social components. According to Roberts (2000), dev elopment of urban regeneration process can be summarized as follows (Table 1-1); Table-1.1: Progress of the Regener ation Process from 1950 to 1990 YEAR PROCESS 1950 RECONSTRUCTION Reconstruction of outmoded areas and emerging of suburbs; Participation of private entrepreneurs in addition to central and local governments; targets to improve residential and living standards of public sector investments; inner urban 3 areas and close neighborhood importance. 1960 REVITALISATION Growth of suburbs; Balance of public and private sector; Regional level in actions, increasing importance of private sector; improvement of social conditions and welfare; improvement of existing areas. 1970 RENEWAL Intensity on renewal and district projects; close proximity developments, increasing importance of private sector; localization becoming visible increases in imperative resources of the public and in private investments; social-based actions, renewal of outmoded urban infrastructure, environmental improvements with new inventions. 1980 REDEVELOPMENT Redevelopment projects, off-city projects, giving importance to the private sector and to expertise units, increasing partnerships; intensity in local scale in early 1980s, selective government incentive, replacement and redevelopment projects, broad environmental approaches. 1990 RECREATION Inclination towards detailed approaches in policies and applications, integrated education, dominance of partnerships, representation of strategic perspectives, development of regional actions, balances between public and private sector funds, role of society gaining importance, more modest conservation, presentation of idea of broad-scope, sustainable environment. Source: ROBERTS, 2000; ÖZDEN, 2002 The process of urban regeneration shows that urban regeneration approaches must ensure coordination between sustainable development and healthy environment in Brownfield areas. These efforts could play a key role in supporting the guide to the same problem in cities. European cities are also focused on solutions to the process of deindustrialization as the other developed countries are. Sustainability profile of European cities is committed to using a common approach to the abandoned areas 4 within European Common Indicators (ECI) and European Spatial Development (ESDP). The approaches and standards of regeneration implementation are set by these guidelines and regulations in European cities. ECI regulation would ensure a more efficient sustainable land use approach to the cities in indicator 9 [2]; “ a) Urbanized or artificially modeled land: the size of ar tificially modeled area as a percenta g e of the tota l municipality area; b) Derelict or contaminated land: the size of derelic t or contami n a t e d area (m²); c) Intensit y of use: number of inhabi t a n t s per km² of the area clas sified as “urbanized land; d) New development: new building on virgin area (Greenfield sites) and new building on contaminated or derelict area (Brownfield sites) comp ared to the total area (%); e) Restoration of the areas; ¾ Renovation and conservation of dere lic t buildin g s (total number) ; ¾ Renovation and conservation of derelict build ing s (total of m² of each floor); ¾ Redevelopment of derelict areas for new uses, including public open spaces (area in m² ); ¾ Cleansing of contaminated land (area in m² ); f) Protected areas: size of the protect ed area as a percentage of the munic ipal area. ” These strategies share particular emphasis on sustainable development for cities. It is important to continually build new strategies for sustainability depending on new problems in cities . In order to encourage sustainable development, Brownfield sites have many opportunities for these improvements and developments. Thus, such developments can lead to positive impacts on the environment and eliminate these unfavorable conditions. Urban regeneration approaches must be adopted for sustainable development in order to recycle derelict land and buildings, which can contribute to increases in sustainable urban development and reducing unhealthy condition (COUCH and DENEMANN, 2000). A major approach of regeneration implementation serves to emphasize the possibility of place advantage. Urban regeneration plays a pivotal role in healthy urban 5 development in a long process of regaining underused areas. Regeneration projects that provide strong evidence for effectiveness of sustainability are characterized by economic, ecological and social components. The requirement of urban r egeneration is based on a three dimensional process, namely economic, social and ecological development in abandoned areas. This is the most effective improvement on the built healthy environment identified in old industrial areas. However, the main emphasis of the argument does not have a more comprehensive approach to abandoned areas and thus there is a notable lack of evaluation of the characteristics of abandoned areas. From this perspective, this study investigates the potential solutions for Brownfield areas in the urban development and attempts to address a new fundamental theoretical approach. The methodology offers great flexibi lity to integrate quantitative (Grid Based Model-Hierarchical Cluster Analysis) and qualitative (SWOT) analyses with each other. The quantit ative analysis aims to adapt a new approach with qualitative analysis to the pr oblem and draw up guidelines for Turkish cities. A new model is proposed for abandoned problem. This model is, first of all, based on land use standards and creating a design decision in the abandoned areas. The characteristics of Brownfield areas ought to be attached great importance for the sustainable development. An evaluation of urban regeneration sites is included in order to facilitate understanding the key issues within t he model implementation. A brief review of Brownfield problem is presented in the case study of Zonguldak in order to provide an understanding of the problem and to propose a solution through within scientific methods. In particular, this study seeks an answer to the following scientific questions; 1- Which planning instrument and process can be used for the solution development for Turkish cities? 2- How can Brownfield areas be integrated to the city development? In the methodology, explorin g the abandoned areas in Zonguldak is recognized as necessary for the urban regeneration argument and sustainable growth in our 6 methodology. The methodology can be identified as discovering the possibilities and opportunities in the Brownfield problem. Intended to serve as an agent for the methodology of abandoned areas, Zonguldak plays a key role in identifying solution options and evaluating the effects of urban development. 1 . 1 . The Purpose of Investi g a t ion The decreasing importance of the traditional industries can be called the process of deindustrialization [3]. The process of deindustrializat ion is a new experience in the urban areas of Turkey. This development has left behind a legacy abandoned or underutilized industrial, commercial properties and derelict houses in cities [4]. The regeneration studies usually tend to focus on economic and environmental development in the abandoned areas. The sharpest decline of industrial development has been observed in developed countries through the deindustrialization process. For example, the city of Halle/Leipzig is one of the areas t hat suffer from deindustrialization and suburbanization problem (COLLINS, 2003). Halle/Leipzig has got an unemployment level of 20 percent after reunification (COLLINS, 2003). Manchester/Liverpool is suffering demographically and economically from the consequences of deindustrialization, sub-urbanization like Halle/Leipzig [5]. It is obvious that developed countries consider regeneration approaches as a solution in shrinking cities. The solution emphasizes the importance of economic, ecological and social components. “There are three bodies of lit erature that are quickly gr owing in regeneration scope and conten t - sustai n a b i l i t y , sustainable dev elopment and Brownf i e l d redeve l o p me n t ” [4]. Each sustainable urban development project lacks a unique solution set of the characteristics of Brownfield or deindustrialization areas within regeneration approaches. The regeneration approach is still an important technique for providing sustainability control for Brownfield areas. Nevertheless, a detailed analysis of Brownfield areas is required for regenerat ion projects and so is analyzing the characteristics of Brownfield areas. Redevelopment of Brownfield land is regarded as an essential component of the achievement of sustainable urban regeneration in the city development (DETR 2000; 7 ODPM 2004; PEDIADITI et al., 2005). The sustainability and sustainable approaches can be a significant objective of Brownfield redevelopment. However, the main problem of the Brownfield solution is that it cannot set an appropriate and detailed analysis for the abandoned areas. Sustainable Brownfield implementations refer to redevelopment and growth in the abandoned areas that are maintained over long- term and protect the natural environment [4]. The idea of sustainable development grows considerably in regeneration implementations for the abandoned areas. Despite the emergency of urban regeneration and sustainable development as parallel strands of land use development, there has been little co-ordination between them and an imbalance in action with greater emphasis given to achieving urban regeneration (COUCH and DENEMANN, 2000). The process of urban change necessarily incorporates cycles of growth, decline and regeneration (BERRY et al., 1993) . The urban regeneration implementation is based on physical, economic and social renewal in abandoned areas (MCCARTHY and POLLOCK, 1997). Brownfield areas require a detailed analysis into the characteristics of the areas in the regeneration process. From this perspective, the current trend in the sustainable approach to abandoned areas need a revision within regeneration implementations for a detailed analysis. The approach to Brownfield redevelopment should include a remarkably detailed analysis for achieving sustainable development. The tools used for the Brownfield areas in this study promote sustainable development that enhances the natural and built environment in ways that are compatible with each other (GREED, 1999); ¾ “ The requirement to conserve the stock of natural assets, wherever possible offsetting any unavoidable reduction by a compens ating increas e so that the total is left undiminished ¾ The need to avoid damaging the regenerativ e capacity of the world’s natural ecosyste m ¾ The need to achieve greater social equity ¾ The avoidance of the imposition of added costs or risks on succeeding generations.” According to Pediaditi et al. (2005), the life cycle of a Brownfield redevelopment can be broadly divided into three separate phases, namely: planning and design, construction and remediation and operation (Figure design phase are crucial in the life cycle of al., 2005), but there is no strong technique for analyzing the data on the land use planning and design phase. The land use planning and design phase still need developed on the basis of a new methodological approach. Therefore, the approach that is recommended must support the extensive analysis of these phases for the sustainability. Figure -1.1: The Brownfield Redevelopment Proje Source: PEDIADI A top-down(2) (the method of this study is a complete analysis from macro level to micro level for abandoned areas) system in terms of sustainable city development in Brownfield areas. This new methodological approach can help avoid the repetition of classical methods in Brownfield areas. It offers a healthy environment an evaluation of the problem. 2 To see for more information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top Remediation & Construction Phase Operation Phase 8 –1.1). The land use pla Brownfield redevelopment (PEDIADI ct Life Cycle TI et al., 2005 analysis approach is a necessary methodological d is perfectly suited for a detailed -down_and_bottom-up_design. Idle Site Recycling site- Planning process Design/Assesment Decision Point Building sign off Decision Point Granting of planning permission nning and TI et to be As men of dein from a econom develop coal an by sea thanks of prob mining econom of aban The clo city de opportu areas. integra Zongul sustain opportu tioned ab dustrializa nd declinin ic analys ment driv d coal pro and road to the con lems lik e industry is ic and so doned are Figure - Sourc sure of co velopmen nities. Sh The rege ted study o dak is a ability for nities to a ove, Turk tion devel g with ec is has sug ers in the duction [ 6 to Istanbu nection to land use one of th cial declin as and vic 1.2: Dist a e: [8], (The al mining t. It is rinking, in neration s f urban ab city requ former c nalyze th ish cities h opment. Z onomic de gested tha city. Abou ]. Zonguld l [7] (Figu the metro , shrinki n e main pro e in the cit inity of ab nce of Zo Figure is areas has characteriz this sense tructures andoned iring reco oal minin e problem 9 ave recen onguldak velopmen t coal pro t 80% of Z ak is con n re-1.2). A politan citi g problem blems in y, the pro andoned a nguldak C prepared led to an ed by e , is a majo are the k areas. mmendati g areas. through a tly started is the city t and une duction is onguldak ected by lthough Zo es in Turk and tran the city de blem has c reas. ity from An by Mustafa increased conomic r problem k ey sustai ons within This sta new scie to experi that is c mploymen one of the k ’s labor f o road and r nguldak i k ey, it suffe sportation velopmen aused a r kara and ERGEN, unemplo decline a in Zongul nability ph a frame te of Bro ntific app ence the p urrently s t in Turk e major ec rce is eng ail to Ank a s a charm rs from a . Shrinki n t. In regard ise in the Istanbul 2009) yment pro nd lack dak’s coa l enomena work to wnfield p roach to t rocess uffering y. The onomic aged in ra and ing city number g coal to the number blem in of job mining for an support rovides he city. 10 The vigorous growth of deindustrialization in coal mining areas enables one to understand the problem in Turkish citi es. Implementing current regeneration approaches may not be a solution on its own for an extensive analysis in Brownfield areas. Although Zonguldak has the highest population of employees in the region, the problems are currently based on economic and population decline. The conditions in Zonguldak show that shrinking problem resu lts in a substantial increase in recession and unemployment. The characteristics of the problem in Zonguldak are significant indicators of the former coal mining areas. In general, this inner city problem in Zonguldak emphasizes conditions related to either economic decline or unplanned development. Zonguldak suffers from shrinking problem like other coal mining areas, many of which are depressed with high unemployment rates, vacant homes, and abandoned coal mining areas (LEWIS, 2008). The populati on has started to decrease in the last few years due to the migration from Zonguldak to other cities. Economic conditions and limitations of development options have a direct effect on the increase in population decline. Recently, these adverse conditions have made it necessary to make recommendations to implement a regeneration solution for Zonguldak city development. The decline in the coal mining areas, population loss and disappearance of social livability are some of the shrinkage cons equences of the closure of coal mining areas. Areas underused for coal mining structures need a solution integrated into the city planning for sustainable and healthy development. An important approach to this development provides the basic Brownfield redevelopment strategies in the city development. 11 Figure -1.3: Between 1927 and 2000 Z onguldak Population Situation 3 Source: ANONYMUS, 2002 During the last 80 years, Zonguldak’s population has increased depending on economic conditions (Figure-1.3). Nevertheless, in early 2000s, the population started to decline because of the closure of coal mining areas. Currently, the largest economic development of shrinkage and population decline can be observed in Zonguldak. The solution of Brownfield redevelopment is focused on economic, ecological and social demands in the abandoned areas. Additionally, Brownfield redevelopment requires an evaluation of spatial information for an appropriate solution. In this study, exploring the spatial im pacts of abandoned areas is emphasized for a new methodological approach integrated into the regeneration solution. The case of Zonguldak requires a particular methodology for an analysis of proper solutions for abandoned areas. The method used in this study analyzes quantitative and qualitative method for proper solutions for the derelict areas. A priority of this methodology is to ensure a sustainable cooperation between abandoned areas and the shrinking problem. The design dec ision model on abandoned areas will enable the methodology to be completed. The research concludes with a conceptual 3 Bartın and Karabük provinces were separated from the Zonguldak province. The population of Zonguldak province in 1990 is 653.739 [In the graph, Karabük and Bart ın population is included to the Zonguldak Population] (Anonymus, 2002). According to 2000 census of population, currently Zonguldak population is 615.599 (Anonymus, 2002). y = 10549x - 2E+07 0 200.000 400.000 600.000 800.000 1.000.000 1.200.000 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Zonguldak Total Population Linear (Total Population) 12 framework as a guide to Turkish cities. 1 . 2 . Scientific Discuss ion and Planni n g Practi c e for the Problem The deindustrialization process has been t he long term discussion in the scientific area. The concept of the deindustrialization process usually constitutes a repetition of previous solutions. Current approaches to shrinking cities fail to create innovation and to analyze spatial dat a in an accurate manner. The general common categorizations of shrinking solutions are grouped under the ecological, economic and social components. In addition, academic studies need to cover the context of spatial data analysis for the abandoned areas. The primary focus of Brownfield redevelopment is still on economic benefits integrated into the regeneration solution. Therefore, spatial information does not present itself as an important consideration in urban regeneration areas. The general layout of the scientific background emphasizes economic, social and ecological directions in the abandoned areas. Even so, academic discussions are mostly about the economic importance of Brownfield areas. According to Langstraat (2006), Bell & Morse (2003) argues that provided the land areas required to support a city do not suffer from resources degradation, pollution or negative socio-economic impact, the city can be said to be sustainable. The investigation of Bell & Morse defines basic sustainability indicators of Brownfield areas and shows that the economic issues are one of the most important indicators of shrinking development. According to Paull (2008), economic dev elopment constitutes employment gains, leveraged investment, and revitalized neighborhood in Brownfield redevelopment. In his study, Paull determines the key role of economic development for Brownfield areas. According to Hudak (2002), generally , the willingness of a developer to get involved with a Brownfield site depends on what they perceive as the potential economic benefit (HULA, 2000). According to many scholars, main approaches to Brownfield redevelopment are based on economic benefit. However, spatial analysis should be part of the solution as well as ecological, economic and social components in order to find appropriate solutions for the shrinking problem. Many recent studies have focused on economic, ecological and social techniques for the abandoned areas. Brownfield redevelopment approaches need to analyze not 13 only ecological, economic and social concerns, but also spatial data for appropriate solutions in abandoned areas. Spatial data highlights the characteristics of the abandoned areas in the Regeneration projects. One of the major problems of the urbanization process is t he impacts of the shrinking problem on the urban development. Master plan is prepared for town and cities, emphasizing zoning regulation for j udicious use of urban land [9]. Therefore, master plan provides a special structure for urban regeneration projects. It addresses premise of abandoned areas in urban design implementation. Urban design discusses the issues of political, social, administrative, economic and physical structures. Urban shrinkage is one of the pathway urban developments in the planning process (RINK, HAASE, GROßMANN, BERNT, 2010). Urban design provides a direct link to the soluti on for abandoned areas within urban regeneration projects. The framework for urban design in urban regeneration, therefore, should be based on regeneration principles of urban design which highlight the process by which the built environment is created and which can also be integrated with urban regeneration strategies (WANSBOROUGH and MAGEAN, 2000). There is indeed a strong role for the design of the physical environment-urban and landscape design- in abandoned areas (BETRAM and NEUSTUPNY, 2005). In general, this body of urbanization provides cr itical perspectives on the intersection between urban design and urban regeneration (SWILLING, 2005). It is clear that urban regeneration has important priorities to restore social, cultural and spatial destruction and values as well as industry and employment opportunities of cities (YIRMIBE ŞOĞLU and YI ĞITER, 2003). The changing socio-economic conditions lead to unemployment and adverse economic conditions in postindustrial sites. This is increasingly becoming an important problem in the urban development. Furthermore, the issue pertinent to the role of abandoned areas in urban regeneration is considered as a vital development option for healthy and livable sustainable areas. The main aim of urban regeneration is to assess wide topics in the solution for abandoned areas. Abandoned sites penetrate into every aspect of development 14 options in urban areas for various reasons. “ The issue of abandoned mines is importan t because it represen t s many thousa n d s of former mining sites that continu e to pose a real potentia l threat to hu man safety and health and environm e n t a l damag e ” ( ZYL et al., 2002). These challenges highlight associated economic, ecological and social issues into the regeneration process. The strategy of urban regeneration of Brownfield sites proves to be a successful approach to in the cities. There are basically many processes of the urbanization problems. The current tendency is to use regeneration as a solution for the abandoned areas thanks to both its sustainable components and its structure. The regeneration process of urbanization can be summarized brie fly as follows (Figure-1.4); Figure -1.4: Regeneration Development Process G R OW TH (Perio d of using all p oten tial ) MATURI TY (Per io d of need more high capacity and functions) OBSOLESCENCE (Per io d of star tin g aband o n ed ) DERELICTION (Per io d of star tin g new economic a l and physica l structures ) 15 Source: Erden, 2003 The environmental, economic and social dimensions are combined in regeneration solutions. The regeneration of an urban environment contributes to a sustainable urban development in abandoned areas. In this respect, successful Brownfield redevelopment policies and strategies should use a combination of environmental, spatial and urban planning approaches (GRIMSKI and FERBER, 2001). Cities appear to be important locations for setting up actions to help urban design and urban planning strategies for sustainable development (JEN KS at al, 1996; MIRZA, 2010). The general approach recommended is that urban regeneration ensures environmental restoration, sustainable land use approaches and economic development. The political, social and economic context of Br ownfield becomes clearer through the analysis of related aspects in the following areas (FERBER and GRIMSKI, 2002); ¾ “Breakdown of economics, ¾ P r o b l e m s in attrac t i ng new investors, ¾ High unemploy ment rate, ¾ Decline of tax income for the communities, ¾ S o c i a l conflic t s , ¾ Consumption of Greenfields.” Abandoned industrial areas clearly originate in former industrial areas. However, the tendency to create sustainable urban regeneration especially in former industrial areas presents itself with the regeneration in these areas. The tendency of regeneration projects require s strong coordination among economic, ecological and social components. A key theme that emerges is the regeneration projects to play a R E D EV E LO PME N T (Perio d of star ti n g re-lif e) REGENERATION 16 crucial role in Brownfield redevelopment. Along with Brownfield sites, upgrading of sustainable approaches creates new development options with regeneration projects in cities. In general, overall development of this process is to formulate mainly economic, ecological and social issues. There are indeed drastic effects on spatial structures for former industrial areas. The effects of spatial structure need to be analyzed in the regeneration projects for appropriate solutions in abandoned areas. The processes of shrinking cities are cu rrently one of the important problems in developed countries. Furthermore, the abandoned solution must highlight that spatial data analysis is a necessary precedence for achieving appropriate development. The structural problem in shrinking cities must be considered significant towards a solution for abandoned areas. The main aim of the regeneration approaches to abandoned areas is to find suitable adaptation to sustainable development in an urban planning practice. On the contrary, shrinking cities provide opportunities for new development for each abandoned area. This study regards social, economic and ecological development as vital elements of the qualitative analysis (SWOT analysis). A dditionally, Brownfield areas and their characteristics are recognized as another vita l element for solutions for of Brownfield areas through the quantitative analysis. The combination of quantitative and qualitative methods offers a more efficient spatial data analysis and accurate results for abandoned areas. This analysis provides a new approach to Brownfield areas through quantitative and qualitative methods. Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used throughout the planning practice. 1 . 3 . Objective of the Study The objective of this study is to investigat e the Brownfield redevelopment process. It integrates SWOT and Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis into the new methodological approach in the abandoned areas. Each method contributes to appropriate solutions for Brownfield redevelopment. The analysis concluded that sustainable development options should be emphasized in solution approaches. The design decision model provides a guide to proper solutions in abandoned areas. Green areas standards can help address concerns about the implementation of the design decision model in regeneration projects. The design decision model will 17 mainly prove to be the appropriate solution for sustainability in the abandoned areas. The interaction between Brownfield areas and city development underlines some key problems within the globalization process. In the cont ext of Brownfield for Turkish cities, several problems might reasonably be exposed; 1- Economic dimension is decreased in the cities because of the Brownfield problem, 2- Cities cannot maintain their population during the process of globalization development , people migrate to other cities, 3- Cities cannot participate in the globalization context and need a solution in order to compete with other cities. Shrinking is a problem in the urbanizati on process due to the economic decline and unemployment condition. These conditions might result in many other problems related to health and safety (MEHTA, 2006). Many cities have suffered from tremendous population loss during the deindustrialization process (MEHTA, 2006). In practice, urban regeneration is used in order to restore the unemployment levels and lower economic data. Urban regeneration is considered the full contribution of environmental, economic and social issues. Additionally, the spatial analysis is required for an appropriate solution for abandoned areas. Bad image clearance and redevelopment are the most visible components of urban regeneration (GIBSON and LANGSTAFF, 1982). It should be noted here that the context of this study has increasingly linked the sustainability of economic activities and environmental improvements with social and cultural vitality (CALANTONIO and DIXON et al., 2009). Urban regeneration makes an attempt to re cover the inhabited environmental quality in order to improve the quality of human life (PAULA SOUZA GUIMARÃES and DOLORES ALVES COCCO, 2005). The urban env ironment is considered as an important component for the issue of sustainable development. The fundamental objective of urban regener ation is to implement sustainable principles in the abandoned areas. The powers and procedures currently used in the clearance and redevelopment process are the result of the need for a long term of evaluation of 18 solutions (GIBSON and LANGSTAFF, 1982). Urban regeneration creates healthy and safety approaches regarding the response of sustainability. A particular challenge of the sustainability is to ensure an appropriate solution in abandoned areas. This process includes the linkage between the micro level of planning process and the macro level of the planning process. The content of this linkage is complex in terms of tr iggering environmental, economic, social and spatial planning effects (FERBER and GRIMSKI, 2002) . Key measures include strategies of abandoned areas and it has a goal to achieve sustainable and healthy development in the abandoned areas. These activities, preceding the actual development work, aim at clarifying the sustainability problem and at generating an appropriate solution idea (VAN DEN AKKER, 1999). The general objectives of th is study can be listed as follows; ¾ Improving sustainable environment in abandoned areas ¾ Restructuring and regaining the derelict areas ¾ Recognizing the potenti al of abandoned areas and identifying the existing resources ¾ Creating healthy built environments and landscapes for present and future generations ¾ Providing sustainable land development in urban areas ¾ Integrating a holistic approach into the urban regeneration in Brownfield sites Former coal mining sites of Zonguldak de monstrate that spatial analysis must be focused on with social, economic and ecological analysis. One of the main problems facing former mining sites is the steady loss of residents and jobs over the last decades (FRIEDMAN, 2003). The problem of with the closure of mining areas, where redevelopment is complicated by environmental contamination, has great impacts on Zonguldak (SMITH, 2010). The Zonguldak population movement is towards other cities due to a lack of ec onomic opportunities. The constraints of the economic level of a shrinking city`s development can be defined as a crucial problem in the city. Furthermore, the solution for this problem is reflected on alternative approaches to urban development strategies. The nature of development in abandoned areas is 19 generally associated with physical clearance. The purpose of this study is to examine the impacts of both social, economic, ecological factors and spatial factors in order to find an appropriate solution for Brownfield redevelopment. In this study, a detailed analysis is conducted for Zonguldak city in local level by using the method of Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster and SWOT. The cultural and historical components allow us to define the advantages and disadvantages of social SWOT analysis in this study. The natural components are the main focus of the method that helps to analyze both quantit ative (Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis) and qualitative (SWOT) method. Natural components prove that SWOT analysis and Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster analysis work as one method for urban regeneration approach. Finally, the top-down approach in urban regeneration is needed to conduct an overall analysis of the abandoned areas. This study provides a case study of the urban regeneration in Zonguldak fo r an appropriate sustainable solution. It employs qualitative and quantitative methods as a solution for the abandoned areas in the regeneration projects. The design decision model could satisfy city development needs . 1 . 4 . Emphasis of the Invest i g a t ion This investigation puts emphasis on the key role of spatial characteristics in new planning and design approaches. In this study, the regeneration of Brownfield sites provides the balance among social, economic, ecological and spatial analyses. The regaining of Brownfield sites is a crucial strategy of planning and design in regeneration projects. T he study employs an adequate analysis of the spatial data as a form of quantitative analysis. In the current land use in Zonguldak, closed coal mining sites present themselves as the ki nd of areas for which an attempt will be made to achieve sustainable development. The Turkish planning system has a complex structure (TÜRK, 2002). This structure has been shaped with various planning laws from past to present (TÜRK, 2002). From this perspective, an urban regeneration projec t and its instruments cannot be easily adapted to the Turkish planning system. In addition, the Turkish planning policy does not have a comprehensive multi-dimensional sustainable development 20 strategy (MAZLUM, 2004). Admittedly, Br ownfield problem focuses on economic decline and unemployment condition in the city development. It is obvious that the Turkish planning system needs a revision for a sustainable and appropriate solution in abandoned areas. Currently, Zonguldak is faced with inevit able threats of an abandonment problem in the city development. These threats have enormous impacts on economic decline, social destruction and environmental demolition. The study uses qualitative and quantitative analyses in order to place emphasis on a systematic approach to such threats. The main objective of the ur ban regeneration implementation is to regain these underuse areas. Redevelopment of potential abandoned areas reveals instruments of new development options in the city. These instruments of urban regeneration are restricted due to the limitation of the accessible data on the abandoned areas. The efficient and optimum utilization of former c oal mining areas is top priority in all development options [10]. The present state of abandoned areas has a key role in new development potential in Zonguldak. The dr amatic development in former coal mining areas brings about inevitable results of destruction on social and economic development. Regaining former coal mining sites is a long term development with adaptation to the Turkish planning system. The concept of urban regeneration is increasingly included in urban development content. The main purpose of this study is to determine practical solutions of urban generation for a sustainable approach. 1 . 5 . The Subject of The Study City shrinkage is the result of globalization and its effe cts are reflected in the relocation of industry and the development of urbaniza tion (SABOT and FOL, 2007). Although globalization has hel ped new development in some cities, others are undergoing a destructive influence on the city development. The particular problem of shrinking cities is enormous decline in the industrialized areas. “The renov ation of derelict in dustrial sites is a longstand i n g and widesp r e a d practi c e and has become more popular in the last decades of the 20 th century” (MIAZZO, 2009). The most important consequence of the solution is functional transformation 21 from industry to park, leisure or settlemen t facilities. While city shrinkage is a common phenomenon in developed countries, it affects a variety of issues depending upon urban development context (SABOT and FO L, 2007). For example, the socio- economic restructuring that has taken place in British cities over the last century has led to a more complex mosaic of Br itish economy and industrial areas (WONG, BAKER, GALLENT, 2004). According to Wong et al. (2004), the national market, for instance, has been characterized by a r educed demand for traditional skilled manual labor (GREEN, 1997). The huge loss of employment is the main reason for abandoned problem in developed countries. In some British cities such as Manchester, urban areas evolved rapidly in the early 19 th century from series of small towns to a major industrial conurbation with huge material flows and worldwide trade connection (DOUGLAS, HODGSON, LAWSON, 2002). On the contrary, today those cities are suffering from population decline, economic destruction and social collapse in the urban development. Currently, urban development is inevitably faced with the drastic abandoned conditions in former industrialized areas. It is important to emphasize regeneration projects as a common solution approach in abandoned areas in developed countries. The abandoned structures are constructed as new facilities through urban regeneration projects in the urban development. Developed countries have preserved enhancing life style, historical background of abandoned areas in the regeneration projects. The urban regeneration projects require the instruments of urban design to be firmly derived from the demands of urban abandoned areas (WANSBOROUGH AND MAGEAN, 2000). According to Wansborough and Magean (2000), the use of regeneration of post industrial sites is linked to urban design through the process of creating what is known as the “entrepreneurial city” (H ALL and HUBBARD, 1996). The objectives of urban design include the implementation of urban regeneration projects in the planning development. Urban regeneration uses three forms of sustainability context. These are economic viability, social benefit and environmental support. According to Carmona et al. (2002), there is an obvious relationship 22 between the three forms of urban regeneration and urban design objectives; the relationship is explained in a figure from the study conducted by Carmona et al.; SUSTAINABLE VALUE A. Economic viability B. Social benefit C. Environmental support Character- to promote character in townscape and landscape by responding to and reinforcing locally distinctive patterns of development and culture. Continuit y and Enclosure- to promote the continuity of street frontages and the enclosure of space by development which clearly defines private and public areas. Quality of the Public Realm- to promote public spaces and routes that are attractive, safe, uncluttered and work effectively for all in society, including disabled and elderly people. Ease of Movement- to promote accessibility and local permeability by making places that connect with each other and are easy to move through, putting people before traffic and integrating land uses and transport. Legibili t y- to promote legibility through development that provides recognizable routes, intersections and landmarks to help people find their way around. Adaptabi l i t y- to promote adaptability through development that can respond to changing social, technological and economic conditions. Diversit y- to promote diversity and choice through a mix of compatible developments and uses that work together to create vi able places that respond to local needs. A. Economic Viability- development that is economically feasible and which 23 remains economically viable over the long-term B. Social Benefit- development that responds to broader public objectives and concerns and which as far as possible benefits from the support of the local community in which it sits C. Environmental Support- development that delivers more energy efficient, robust, ecologically supportive and less polluting patterns of urban form The notion of urban regeneration promotes new instruments of sustainable development in the urban design implementations. These instruments are also closely intertwined with criteria for urban design in the urban regeneration projects. The reason why criteria for urban design are used is that Brownfield sites need an immediate solution, for there are drastically negative effects on land use development . A definition of design is outlined and then utilized in an assessment of a number of abandoned areas design on the urban regeneration schemes (BELL and JAYNE, 2003). The transformation processes of abandoned areas are long and complex, and have been parallel to the countries economic, social and ecological transformation (STANGEL, 2011). The requirement of urban design instruments must be a suitable framework to address urban r egeneration in abandoned areas. 1 . 6 . Focus and Methodology of the Study The methodology of the study was established with a consideration into nature, culture and history in the derelict areas. The instruments of urban and landscape design are priority to improve sustainable development in the abandoned areas. The methodology employs not only a qualitative analysis but also a quantitative analysis for a proper solution in abandoned areas. In this study, historical, cultural and natural components are in compliance with sustainability instruments. The focus of Brownfield redevelopment must be on the characteristics of abandoned areas in the regeneration projects. An assessment of the characteristics of abandoned areas is conducted in order to determine potential impacts of design solution on the city development. 24 The analysis included in the study find a solution for negative impacts of derelict areas and thus promotes healthy development. The primary methodological focus of post-industrial landscape is on conducting an analysis of the required approaches that are not included in current solution experiences. The main purpose of the methodology is to conduct a detailed analysis from down scale to top scale as a new method for the abandoned areas. This new methodological approach is first used in one Turkish city, and it is considered to be a unique approach when combined with the analysis of the case study. Additionally, many scientific methods adopt bottom-up or top-down approach but they generally have the lack of necessary understanding of the characteristics of Brownfield areas or Brownfield effects on the city development. For instance, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in 1997, described bottom-up planning process as “Bottom- up planning pr ocess has involved many local business as well as neighborhood residents ” . According to John Byrne et al. (1999), bottom-up process is determined as follows; “A bottom- up process that proceeds from a community bas ed vis ion of its needs and aspiration. It seeks to build capacity, create partnerships and m obiliz e resources to mak e a vision a reality”. All of these approaches have been focused on public participation and public demands in the urban regeneration of implementation. However, the methodology of this study brings new attempts in terms of analyzing land da ta (quantitative analysis) and Brownfield effects (qualitative analysis) on the city development. The other advantage of this method is that it gives a chance to make decisions about the design for Turkish cities. The methodology in the study could conduct a powerful and detailed analysis in abandoned areas. The design decision model, one of the new approaches in Brownfield redevelopment, will become an important tool of design preparation in regeneration projects. Post-indus trial structures have a great potential for reuse and bring new identity to the derelict areas in the design approaches. In this study, Brownfield areas are the core problem of the city development, which is based on my hypothesis to find an appropriate solution to this problem in the urban regeneration context. SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, Threat) analysis can explore top scale of the issue to under stand the general problem in the city development. Additionally, Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis examines the characteristi cs of abandoned areas (micro scale of the issue) such as 25 slope, land use issues in the methodological approach. The study concludes with an interpretation of the design decision model (Figure–1.5). Figure -1.5: Linkages of the Research Method Source: Adapted from ROBINSON, 1998 The process includes qualitative and quantitative analyses to deal with the critical problem of abandoned areas. Basically, it is a process that employs new methodology to help sustainability and determine the extent and corrective action [ 4 ] . The methodology emphasizes particular solu tion approaches that could be integrated into the scientific background. The main principals of the methodological approach in the study are [11]; ¾ To analyze and evaluate current prac tice in Brownfield regeneration ¾ To derive improvements for the applied procedure ¾ To define the criteria for sustainable Brownfield regeneration The main objective of the me thodological approach to Brownfield redevelopment is to encourage beneficial use of abandoned areas in the city development. Urban planning instruments are used to promote preventive and intervention measures (MEDA, 2009) in the derelict areas. Spat ial development perspective provides sustainability regarding environmentally sensitive, economically viable and socially acceptable development in this research. The methodology makes a constant atte mpt to compromise between urban design and urban regeneration and reinterpret the concept to support the objective of sustainable development (COUCH, DENEMANN, 2000). Furthermore, the methodology includes a new scientific approach to abandoned areas in sustainable Problem Statement - Hypothesis Results and Interpretation Data Collection and Construction SWOT and Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis 26 development. This study provides a detailed analysis for an overview of the problem solution. Urban development is focused on many widespread problems. The shrinking problem is currently considered one of the most important problems in cities. Brownfield redevelopment highlights sustainability in the solution for the shrinking problem. Brownfield redevelopment process at the project level represents a summary of some fundamental premises [4]; ¾ “Achieving sustainable devel opm e n t at the communit y and Brownfield proje ct levels will require changes bas ed on t he expectations of communities and balanc e between community and sustainability parameters. ¾ Brownfield projects need to be evaluated in social lif e and in local sources because what is sustainable in one communit y may not be in another. ¾ Sustainable regeneration r edevelopment should be co ncentrated on the urban derelict areas that may affect current and future site conditions”. The main focus of the study is on finding an appropriate solution for the shrinking problem and its impacts on the urban environment. Local and regional economic developments have changed considerably in the globalization process. In this process, cities have regenerated the new infrastructural conditions of the local developments (LEVENT, 2003). Urban regener ation has mainly concentrated on social, economic and demographic structures for sustainable development. The quantitative and qualitative analyses are conducted so as to examine the shrinking problem thoroughly within the case study of Zonguldak. This study will help to develop a conceptual model that can guide the sustainable development for Turkish cities. Additionally , it will emphasize a new me thodological approach to Brownfield redevelopment through SWOT analysis and Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster analysis. The design decision model of Brownfield areas will be tested in a way sustainable with approaches to precise solutions in abandoned areas. The methodology used in this study is based on green areas standards of the land use for the design decision model. In addition, the methodology can mainly test any kind of standards for approaches to design for problem solution. 27 2-URBAN REGENERATION PROJECTS IN THE DERELICT AREAS As a result of centuries of human exploitation of our planet, the phenomenon of the industrialization process has become littered with tens of thousands of acres of abandoned, decaying, and potentially contaminated former industrial sites (VEY, 2007; LEWIS, 2008). Additionally , industrialization process started to lose significant effect in the urbanization development. A vigorous development of deindustrialization causes economic decline and unemployment condition in the city development. Developed countries are currently faced with sufferings mostly from deindustrialization conditions. According to Lewis (2008), the US A has approximately five hundred to one million Brownfield sites (AMEKUDZI and FOMUNUNG, 2004). Potential impacts of increased deindustrialization are the abandoned problem, vacant homes and high unemployment rates in the cities. The deindustrialization process is ce rtainly connected with transformation of structures and functionality that encourage sustainable development. Former coal mining areas are the strongest proponents of this structuralist explanation, predicting a linear and positive relationship between the magnitude of deindustrialization and expansion of sustainabl e components (IVERSEN and CUSACK, 2000; CARNES and MARES, 2010). The regeneration of these derelict areas provides new development opportunities for the neglected city centers and their surroundings to recover the social life and utilization of city centers (THORNS, 2002; YERLIYURT and HAMAMCIOĞLU, 2005). The social, economic and ecological components are the most inevitable approach to Brownfield redevelopment in this process. Brownfield redevelopment constitutes a widespread solution for economic, ecological and social components, but there is a lack of spatial analysis evaluation of the derelict areas problem. The abandoned areas are more often considered in regard to sustainability in developed countries. A prerequisite of Brownfield redevelopment must be to adapt a new methodological approach integrated into the regeneration approaches. The indispensable approach to regaining abandoned areas is that it is necessary to analyze abandoned industrial ar eas for redevelopment through the best possible approach. This study proposes a new solution through a new method of analysis for 28 Brownfield areas. In the study, the quantitative and qualitative analyses will serve as a guide to a new approach to an appropriate solution for abandoned areas. 2.1. An Evaluation of the Urban Regeneration Projects, Brownfield Problem and affects on Life Style This section includes information about urban regeneration projects and its impacts, and current solution approaches to the abandoned areas. The process of deindustrialization has an enormous influence on the structure of social, ecological and economic development in the cities. The deindustrialization process results in massive damage to the economic and social development. Urban regeneration is widely experienced in abandoned ar eas (ROBERTS and SKYES, 2000; FRIESECKE, 2007). Basically, urban regeneration makes efforts to regain abandoned structure in the planning process. In effect, cities must face up to some major challenges related to social, economic, environmental and multi-cultural aspects [12] . Currently, urban growth is replaced by stagnation and shrinkage process in many pl aces in developed countries (KABISCH et al., 2006; FRIESECKE, 2007). Urban regeneration is indeed a solution for shrinking and the deindus trialization process in the city development. Generally, the primary objectives of ur ban regeneration can be specified in the following categories (FRIESECKE, 2007); ¾ Strengthening and supporting the vitality and economic functions of such districts as well as ¾ Renewing and preserving their building stock as well as their urban physical and social structure ¾ Improving the natural conditions of Brownfield areas for sustainable and healthy development. Population and economic decline seems to be a kind of foca l point of development of shrinking cities (GROßMANN et al., 2008). Solution for the shrinking problem by means of urban regeneration implementation is relocated requirement of sustainable components. Regeneration projects represent the only solution that could be 29 integrated into the process of the recovery of abandoned areas. It reveals the consequences of regaining the abandoned areas in the urban planning development. The urban regeneration aims to coordinate the component of sustainability to regain the abandoned areas in cities. The concept of the shrinking cities is current ly core of the robust problem in the city development. Impacts of shrinking cities include contaminated sites, enormous unemployment conditions, and derelict areas. Urban regeneration emerges as an important approach to solutions for shrinkage development. According to Kele ş (2003), urban regeneration can be defined as a conscious, systematized and planned action concerning a certain section or totality of a town. Urban regeneration could prove to be a solution for the shrinking problem as follows [11]; ¾ “Real or perceived contamination problems, environmental risks ¾ High local unemployment ¾ Adverse effects on urban life and the viability of communities ¾ Decreasing social stability, increasing social conflicts” A significant and increasing number of abandoned areas are threatening the safety of surrounding areas, contamination and negatively affecting the view of the city (ZOOK, 2009). These problems are crucial in the areas with high concentration of former industry (FUHR, 1999). The process of urban regeneration is increasingly becoming the major solution for the abandoned ar eas. A particular characteristic of the regeneration approach is that it helps to develop a new sustainable approach for abandoned areas. Urban regeneration must provide an extensive approach to the solution for abandoned areas. The main purpose of urban regeneration is to provide sustainability in the abandoned areas. 2.2. Why Sustainability is Necessary for Brownfield Areas Over the course of the 20th century, cities in developed countries suffered from the loss of traditional industries that were undercut by cheaper products from East Asia or withered by the decline in colonial power (JONES and EVAN S, 2008). Cities are currently suffering from the process. Nevertheless, the process provides 30 opportunities for solutions for sustainable development through urban regeneration approaches. Developed countries can have problems with controlling adverse development in deindustrialization areas. Adverse effects assessment must include an evaluation of sustainability in the urban planning process. In this context, it should be noted that Brownfield redevelopment uses urban regeneration with sustainability components. There should be a remarkable coordination between sustainable components and the prerequisite of abandoned areas in order to be able to regain the derelict areas. There is a set of main arguments in support of these approaches to urban regeneration (MCARTHUR, 1995; SKELCHER et al., 1996; LOWNDES et al, 1997; VILAPLANA, 1998) which ar e related with ecological, economic, social indicators. Many of the urban regeneration approaches include key objectives related to sustainable structural urban planning implementations, such as (GRIMSKI and FERBER, 2001); ¾ “Restricting “land-take” by Greenfield site development by reusing Brownfield; ¾ Preserving the architectural heritage of industrial revolution by finding new uses for historic industrial buildings; ¾ Increasing the skills of unemployed people, for example, via the creation of employment opportunities; ¾ Improving environmental quality, for example by encapsulating or removing contaminated soil and restoring the landscape damaged by industrial use.” These strategies are the target objectives of urban regeneration. Urban regeneration addresses reconstruction of both social and physical values in order to provide sustainability. The process of deindustrializat ion is the reason for derelict areas that helps to improve sustainable development in the urban regeneration scheme. The concept of urban regeneration and its specifying content should examine sustainable development on the impact of transformation process. “ The concept of sustainable development dates back a long way, but it was at the UN Conference on 31 the Human Environment 4 (Stockholm, 1972) that the international community met for the first time to consider global environment and development needs together” [13]. This conference put particular emphasis on sustainability in social and economic development. In 1987, the concept of sustainable deve lopment was defined by the report “Our Shared Future” 5 . According to this report, “ sustainable development is the meeting of present needs without restricting the ability and means of future generations to provide for their needs”. In this definition, sustainability can take into consideration the needs of future generations and the ensure aims of compliance on the economic, social, ecological dynamics. In 1992, the concept of sust ainable development was emphasized in the Rio de Janerio 6 declaration on Environment and Development. The consensus of the conference was declared as Agenda 21, in reference to the 21st century, and the following targets were revealed; ¾ Distribution of social justice and equal rights ¾ Economic compatibility ¾ Ecological resistance ¾ Secured future In 2003, the European Council of Town Planner focused on sustainability in city development and New Athens Charter was prepared by the European Council of Town Planner, which dealt with the sustainable management system within following approaches [14]; ¾ “Social balance, involvement, multi-cultural richness connections between generations, social identity, facilities, services ¾ Globalization/regionalization competitive advantages, city networking: complementary and co-operation, economic diversity, mobility 4 For more information look at “http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environmen” 5 For more information on Brundlant Report look at “http://en.wikipedia.org/wi ki/Brundtland_Commission” 6 For more information look at “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Summit” 32 ¾ Input-output, ecosystem approach, healthy cities, nature landscape and open spaces, renewable energy, risk and hazard protection ¾ Urban design, genius loci, cultural heritage, public spaces, local identity, personal contacts, aesthetic excellence” Urban regeneration makes an effort to inco rporate economic, ecological and social aspects of sustainable development in terms of regaining abandoned areas. For example, the UK government reorganizes t he planning and housing issues that are especially focused on the sustainable society theme. In England, the Prime Minister established a group of experts on the sust ainable society formation that prepared Egan Report (2004) and prod uced the sustainable communities’ components for sustainable development; Table-2.1: Sustainable Communities’ Components S O C IA L an d C U LT U R A L ¾ A sense of community identity and belonging ¾ Tolerance respect and engagement with people from different cultures, background and beliefs ¾ Friendly co-operative and helpful behavior in neighborhoods ¾ Opportunities for cultural, leisure, community, sport and other activities ¾ Low levels of crime and anti-social behavior with visible, effective and community-friendly policing ¾ All people are socially included and have similar life opportunities G O V E R N A N C E ¾ Strategic, visionary, representative, accountable governance systems that enable inclusive, active and effective participation by individuals and organizations ¾ Strong, informed and effective leadership that lead by example (eg government, business and community) ¾ Strong, inclusive, community and voluntary sector (eg resident’s associations, neighborhood watch) ¾ A sense of civic values, responsibility and pride ¾ Continuous improvement through effective delivery, monitoring and feedback at all levels 33 E N V IR O N M E N TA L ¾ Efficient use of resources now and in the future in the built environment and service provision (e.g. energy, land, water resources, flood defense, waste minimization etc) ¾ Living in a way that minimizes the negative environmental impact and enhances the positive impact (e.g. recycling, walking, cycling) ¾ Protecting and improving natural resources and biodiversity (e.g. air quality, noise, water quality) ¾ Having due regard for needs of future generations in current decisions and actions H O U S IN G a nd B U IL T E N V IR O N M E N T ¾ Creating a sense of place (e.g. a place with a positive “feeling” for people, and local distinctiveness) ¾ Well-maintained, local user-friendly public and green spaces with facilities for everyone including children and older people ¾ Sufficient range, diversity and affordability of housing within a balanced housing marketing ¾ A housing quality well-designed built environment of appropriate size, scale, density, design and layout that complements the distinctive local character of community ¾ High quality, mixed-use, dur able, flexible and adaptable buildings TR A N S P O R T an d C O N N E C TI V IT Y ¾ Transport facilities, including public transport, that help people travel within and between communities ¾ Facilities to encourage safe local walking and cycling ¾ Accessible and appropriate local parking facilities ¾ Widely available and effective te lecommunications and internet access E C O N O M Y ¾ A wide range of jobs and training opportunities ¾ Sufficient land and buildings support economic prosperity and change ¾ Dynamic job and business creation ¾ A strong business community with links into the wider economy S E R V IC E S ¾ Well-educated people from we ll-performing local schools, further and higher education and training for lifelong learning ¾ High quality, local health care and social services ¾ Provision of range of accessible, affordable public, community, voluntary and private services (e.g. retail, food, commercial, utilities) ¾ Service provider who think and act no long term and beyond their own immediate geographical and interest boundaries Sources: EGAN, 2004 The concept of sustainable development has become one of the main approaches of the 21st century (CHITENGI, 2003). The sustainable development covers all stages 34 of development and progress throughout the process of urbanization. Urban regeneration also needs to address sustainable development in the abandoned areas. An important theme of sustainable development is the important role of social and physical regeneration in the derelict areas. 2 . 3 . Visual Aspect of Urban Regene r a t ion Areas for Urban and Landsca p e Design Brownfield Planning applies methods and technologies which clean up abandoned former industrial land to development of plans for urban regeneration (SMITH, 2010). Landscape variety, landscape beauty and landscape uniquenes s are a basis for both recreation of humans in nature and the leisure industry as a branch which is becoming more and more important in urban regeneration (GRUEHN and ROTH, 2008). There is a consensus that vis ual landscape assessment is an inevitable component of landscape and environmental planning (GRUEHN and ROTH, 2008). Analysis of the impacts of abandoned areas presents visual problems in the city development. In this context, visual appr oach and the fundamental principles provide sustainable development into the urban regeneration implementations. Visual assessment of abandoned areas proves to be an important content of the regeneration projects. The concept of urban space can be defined, without imposing aesthetic criteria, as all types of space between buildings in towns and other localities (KRIER, 1979). This space is shaped geometrically and it is only the clear legibility of geometrical characteristics and aesthetics qualities whic h allows us consciously to perceive external space as urban space (KRIER, 1979). The basic approach of urban regeneration takes care of aesthetic and visual perception for design in urban development. Elements of visual design should provide a functional and sustainable design for the urban space of Brownfield areas. Ecological process interacting with natural processes is not consciously planned or designed with any aesthetic objective in urban space, but more specifically designed to appeal to our aesthetic senses (BELL, 1993). Evaluation of abandoned areas is 35 not static in design approach. Abandoned areas of hills, water, vegetation and buildings provide different landscape patterns in urban and landscape design depending on visual perspective. Understanding of the environmental visual qualities and landscapes can be analyzed in a fundamental and a rational manner (BELL, 1993). The patterns are formed from di fferent design components, but visual design can be created through basic elements for Brownfield areas. According to Bell (1993), visual design has four basic element s; a point, a line, a plane and a volume, each of which is explained as follows; A-POINT A point, strictly speaking, has no dimension but marks a pos ition space in the visual approach (BELL, 1993). Small or distant objects may be regarded as points such as a bale of straw, a lone tree or small distant objects (BELL, 1993). Point has been defined with a particular purpose like mark out territory, to act as landmarks, to provide a focus for a grand design or merely to provide an interest in a featureless landscape (BELL, 1993). Bell (1993) defines point as follows; ¾ “A point marks a position in space ¾ S ma l l objects can be seen as points ¾ Point features can be associated with a ssertions of power or ownership and can be symbolic in all kinds of ways.” B-LINE A line is an extension of point in one dimens ion which can have specific properties in the way it is drawn or created such as clean, fuzzy, irregular or discontinuous (BELL, 1993). The edge or the edge of a plane can be determined as a line, and so can the boundaries between colors and textures in the design (BELL, 1993). A line can also imply a direction and force or energy in visual perspective of design (BELL, 1993). Bell (1993) defines line as follows; ¾ “Extending a point in one di me nsion creates a line ¾ Lines can be implied by the location of points ¾ Lines can be imag inar y yet still exert influence ¾ Edges of planes can be seen as lines 36 ¾ Lines can have their own properties ¾ Natural lines are common and important in the landscape ¾ M a n - ma d e lines are also numerous ¾ Lines as boundaries ar e used extensively ¾ Lines can act as defining element s in architecture” C-PLAN E “By extending one-dimensional line into two dime nsions we can for m a plane” (BELL, 1993). “ It has no depth or thick ness, only length and width” (BELL, 1993), which helps to understand design areas facilities such as floor, wall or roof planes. The surface of a three-dimensional object is perceived as a plane (BELL, 1993). “ Planes can be simple, flat, curved or twisted” (BELL, 1993). They do not need to be continuous or real, and they can be implied as in the picture plane (BELL, 1993). Planes can be used as media for other treatment and for their inherent qualities such as reflection (BELL, 1993). D-VOLUME Volume is the three-dimensional extension of a two di mensional plane (BELL, 1993). Volume can be solid or open which can be shaped by a geometric form or irregular form (BELL, 1993). Buildings, landforms , trees and woods are all solid volumes- mass in space (BELL, 1993). Solid volumes c an be found in geometric forms such as the cube, tetrahedron sphere etc.. These basic design elements help to analyze Brownfield areas in the design approaches. These elements are found in combination and can possibly be useful to regenerate Brownfield areas with respect for areas identity. The approach of Kevin Lynch7 is identified as place of legibility that is essentially easy to understand the layout of a place. Brownfield areas contain many unique elements that draw design principles for the areas. Lynch uses paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks to create a layout for the city. This simple approach can help simply to understand areas identity. “ The urban design plan inc luded a set of height and bulk regulation that proved its most signi ficant pr actical element” (BARNETT, 1982). The maximum height of buildings can determine the limit of the building design in Brownfield areas 7 For more information look at the book “Ima ge of the city” author Kevin LYNCH (1960) which c Accord actions function (NDUB ecologi mature and bio reveals and pe urban e factorie once g abando impact basic c prove t Brownf redeve an be con Figure -2 ing to Eu (NDUBIS al relatio ISI, 1997 ) cal roles: forests); logically n that urba ople in u nvironme s, crumbli rand skys c ned areas of urban d omponent o be a fun ield sites d lopment w trolled by .1: Eugen gene Odu I, 1997). nships be . The mod Productio compromis on-vital us n industri rban deve nt shows ng wareho raper (RA design in evelopme of the des damental esign. As ith visual q the shape e Odum` s S m, an eco He creat tween typ el divides n (e.g., a e or mult es (e.g., c al environ lopment. that is a p uses, boa GISTAD, to conside nt on the ign appro approach a result, uality ass 37 of design ecosystem ource: [1 5 system is ed a mod es of ec function o griculture, iple-use (e ities, indus ment inter The new ost-indus rded up co 2008). Vi s ration. T abandone ach to the to a health this fundam essment fo in Brownfi compart 5 ] changed el or theo ological s f landscap forestry); .g., subur try) (NDU acts with developm trial waste mmercial ual quality hus, it hel d areas. T derelict a y and sus ental app r Brownfie eld areas. ment mod by a res ry that m ystem req e charact ; protectio bs under BISI, 199 7 both the e ent betwe land, litter spaces, s must sig ps to crea he visual reas. Add tainable de roach pro ld projec t el (1969) ponse to akes cle a uired by eristics int n (e.g. we a forest c ). Odum` s cological en industr ed with de keletal re m nificantly t te a new elements itionally, th velopmen vides sust s. human rer the people o basic tlands, anopy); model system ial and caying ains of ake the positive are the ey can t in the ainable 38 2.4. Sample Urban Regeneration Projects in the Former Coal Mining Areas In particular, negative impacts of abandoned areas must be carefully eliminated in a way that will trigger appropriate development. Urban regeneration proj ects are a very common urban development tool in abandoned areas. Changing cities towards sustainability in the direction of regaining more abandoned sites requires more than focusing on rehabilitation and redevelopment (KAPLAN and TUNÇER, 2006). Urban regeneration projects should be attached with great importance in order to regain abandoned areas as a key approach in the city development. These large post-industrial areas have complex problems that need regeneration approaches to abandoned areas. Urban regeneration is an integrative activity with strong connection to the sustainable development options (LEONARDSEN et al., 2003). The manifesto of the framework for sustainable devel opment is rooted in an integrated area-based approach regeneration initiative combining economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects (COLANTONIO and DIXON et al, 2009). The regeneration projects focus on opportunities to provide sustainable development for the abandoned areas. A regeneration project revitalizes both ph ysical structures and economic, social, ecological components in order to have a successful development in the abandoned areas. Consequently, urban regeneration projects prioritize the new development option in abandoned areas. The Description of European Brownfields The CABERNET (Concerted Action on Brownfields and Economic Regeneration Network) has identified a Brownfield problem in Europe (OLIVER et al, 2005). This information is essential in order to understand the indicators of Brownfield areas and their potential (OLIVER et al, 2005). C ABERNET determined Brownfield areas based on CALRINET definition “Sites that have been affected by the former uses of the site and surrounding land: are derelict and underused: may have real or perceived contamination problems; are mainly in developed urban areas; and require 39 intervention to bring them back to beneficial use” (OLIVER et al, 2005). The definition of Brownfield areas varies in meaning from one country to another; however, especially Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom have a common approach to and understanding of Brownfield problems. According to the CABERNET research, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom define Brownfield areas as follows; Table-2.2: The definition of Brownfield Areas in Western Europe Countries Country Bronwfield definition Data Sources Germany Inner city buildings not under use. Inner city areas redevelopment and refurbishment Umweltbundesamt Berlin Netherland No commonly recognised definition. “Obsolete industrial sites” defines in the other table Ministry Economic Affairs United Kingdom England and Wales; Previously developed land-land which is or was occupied by a permanent structure (excluding agricultural or forestry buildings) and associated fixed surface infrastructure. Planning Policy Guidance Note No:3 (PPG3) Housing DETR (2000); WELSH Assembly Source: OLIVER et al, 2005 It can be seen from the table that Germany, the Netherlands and the UK define Brownfield areas as follows: “it is not under use or abandoned industrial sites”. In this common approach, approaches to solutions are almost the same in all countries. European countries are still suffering from Brownfield areas; it is one of the main 40 problems in the near future all over the world as well as Europe. CABERNET investigation has shown potential Brownfield sites in the UK, Germany and the Netherlands; Table-2.3: Potential of Brownfield Sites in Uk , Germany and Netherland Country Estimated total area of Brownfield Suspected/potential number of potential sites Data Sources Germany 128,000 hectares 362,000 hectares Umweltbundesamt Berlin (2000) Netherland 9,000-11,000 hectares 110,000-120,000 hectares (estimated) EEA (1999); Environmental Ministry (2000) United Kingdom 65,760 hectares (England) 100,000 hectares (England estimates) National Land use Database (2003 return published 2004) 10,847 hectares (Scotland) 4,222 hectares (Scotland) Scottish Executive (Scottish Vacant and Derelict Land Survey 2003, published 2004) No data for Wales and Norhern Ireland Source: OLIVER et al, 2005 As can be seen from the table, Brownfield is a problem not only for the present but also for the future in the city development. This point of view enables one to analyze Brownfield sites in a larger context in the solution approaches. Abandoned sites suffer from severe decline in many places in city development. A disturbance of abandoned areas in this development can create more problems in city planning. 41 The problems presented by at risk , vacant, and abandoned rental properties are common throughout the de-industrialization process (KEATING, 2007). A recent approach to Brownfield areas highlights economic decline, vacancy problem and unemployment condition in the city development. The shrinking problem increases in importance in the current economic development direction as a remarkable problem in the city development. Urban regeneration projects have increasingly become a central solution for abandoned areas in developed countries. The long term benefits of these projects can help to guide futu re approaches to and implementations in the Brownfield issue. Urban regeneration projects re veal that most of the implementation is dominated by economic, ecological and social aspects of the abandoned areas development. The urban regeneration projects increasingl y tend to transform abandoned areas from former industrial areas to public use areas (table 2-4). Table-2.4: Transformation of Func tions from Former Mining Areas FORMER FUNCTION NEW FUNCTION Manvers (Rotherham) Mine in U.K. Business Park Oranje-Nassau Mine in Netherland Neighborhood and Public Use Areas Duisburg Nord Mine in Germany Landscape Park Zollverein Essen Public Use Areas such as museum, restaurant etc… Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2011, (Author`s own construct) Aims of the Projects The principal aim of these projects is to regain the loss functionality of mining areas with new functions into the urban development. The main objectives of the projects are to promote development and provide sustainable environment in the abandoned areas. These objectives can be summarized as follows; 42 ¾ Revival and regaining cultural sense of the areas are realized in this vision. ¾ Adverse environmental conditions need to be eliminated from the areas. ¾ Creation of effect to revitalize the old fabric There are many different approaches to solutions for abandoned areas, but the regeneration projects have generally the same ultimate goals [16] . Brownfield Redevelopment projects show that each project goes through specific phases which are effectively the same for all projects irrespective of their type and scope (GRIMSKI and FERBER, 2001). Brownfield Redevelopment projects have been defined in many ways, so it is useful here to briefly depict the common understanding of these approaches (SKERRITT-ZUBER, 2001) . All urban projects point out that the precondition of projects is an accordingly target- oriented basic attitude and conviction that must be present in all concerned parties [17]. Brownfield redevelopment projects work with sustai nability to test alternative approaches and regenerate abandoned areas across cities. Urban regeneration projects that prove to be sustainability viable to develop show sustainable strategies exploit the opportunities that they must achieve in abandoned areas (GROENENDIJK, 2006). Manvers (Rotherham) Mine in U.K.; “The four district of Barnsley, Doncaste r , Rotherha m and Sheffi eld constitute the metropol i t a n county of South Yorkshire ” [18] . Currently, South Yorkshire seeks to reinvent itself following the decline of its own traditional industries, to become recognized as a heart of regeneration projects [19]. Regeneration projects tend to focus on physical aspect, usually housing, and protecting the legacy of the industrial culture in the city [20] . The closure of coal and steel industries were accelerated due to the new energy policies in the world between the 1980s and 1990s 8 . For communities, the closure of coal mining areas causes severe distress because of the threat of economic and social collapse (LIMPITLAW, 2004). 8 For more information look at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_coal_mining As can can be Rother regene Valley a Wath M of the Depend 2623 i n the coa the coa necess ¾ ¾ A ¾ A be seen f describe ham is on ration pro mong Ro Figu anvers w canal (17 ing on th 1871 an d l mining in l industry ity of rege "An increa loss of a n increas rom the fi d on the e of the im jects. The therham, B re -2.2: Pla as an agric 97) and is develop it reache dustry unt afterward neration p se in derel round 800 e in unem gure (Figu spatial portant p Manvers arnsley a nning of S S ultural co railways ( ment, pop d 12000 i il the 198 0 s [21]. Cu rojects in M ict land fro 0 colliery j ployment 43 re-2.2), th strategic laces for t Regenera nd Doncas patial Stra ource: [2 2 mmunity u 1840) br o ulation wa n 1911 [2 s and it s rrently, th anvers [ 2 m 411 in obs betwe from 13.9% e project o developm he heart o tion Area ter [21]. tegy for S ] ntil the 18 ught new s also ex p 1]. Manve tarted to e e following 1]; 1982 to 13 en 1981 a in 1980 f urban re ent in S f the impl is locate outh Yor k 8 00’ s when industry anded fro rs econom xperience stateme 00 in 1992 nd 1993 to 23.7% 1 generatio outh Yo u ementation d in the k shire the devel to the are m 662 in y was ba a rapid de nts repres 988" n areas rkshire. in the Dearne opment a [21]. 1801 to sed on cline in ent the The W becaus acres o busines leisure a wetla [21]. T restora A n a l y s i O r g a n i z E c o n o m ath Manve e of the c f land for s parks [ uses whic nd nature he regene tion in the Tab i s Table z ati on Mod m i c Valu e s r city cou oal minin industrial d [ 21] . The h included reserve, ration proj new deve Figure le-2.5: An a el ncil approv g closure evelopme northern a 40 acr e a commu j ects inclu lopment of -2.3: The S lysis table 44 ed the “ M program nt, which third of th lake, an nity park ded high the area. Manvers R ource: [2 1 for Manve U r b a Pub l Sec t T h e for i mix t wh a a c r e ( p a r t aster Plan [21]. The contained e regener 18 hole g o and large quality lan egenerati ] rs Regen a n Regene r l ic Sector, L t or Master Pla i nd u s t r i a l d e t ure of sma l a t was, at th e e site for a m t of the Pla n ” for the master p a mixture ation area lf course a passive r dscape a on Site eration Pro ation Proje c L ocal Auth o n provided e velo p me n t l l site s , bus i e time , inte n m a j o r singl e n t Site) . abandoned lan provid of small si provided nd driving ecreationa nd environ ject c t o rity , Priva t 4 0 0 acres o t , which inc l i n e s s parks n ded to be a e inwar d in v areas ed 400 tes and active range, l areas mental t e o f land l uded a and a 158 v est o r 45 E n v i r o n me n t a l Values The norther n third of the rege ner a t i o n area is within the Green Belt and the plan provided for activ e leisu r e uses in this area inclu d i n g a 40 acre lake, an 18 hol e golf course and drivin g range, a wetlan d nature reserv e , a communit y park, large passive recreati o n a l areas and large areas of high quality landsc a p i n g to create a high quality envir o n me n t to attrac t the new develo p me n t . Socia l Value s Balan c e d and integr a t e d commu n i t i es are needed to provide socially cohesive and healthy neighbourhoods. Providing a mix of tenures for a range of househo l d s in a neighbo u r h o o d support e d by the necessa r y infr a s t r uc t ure Creator of Project Council of Wath Town Source: [21] and [22] These projects have many approaches to guiding change that can help to regenerate planned, structured and expl icit abandoned sites. A particular onus placed on physical planning is its ability to create a better quality and efficient physical environment in the cities that will be the foundation for higher quality of life and better place to live in [23]. This is supported by economic prosperity, environmental stability and social vibrancy in implemented regeneration projects [23]. Urban regeneration projects play a leading role in shaping the sustainability content and a new approach to abandoned sites development [24]. The r egaining of abandoned sites is the central approach in terms of the implementation of regeneration projects. Oranje-Nassau Mine in Netherland; Until 1967 , Dutch coal production was between 12 and 14 million tons (Mt) per year (GEOLOGIE EN MIJNBOUW 1971; JONG, 2004). In the second half of the twentieth century, the energy market changed direction fr om coal mining to oil, natural gas and nuclear power (JONG, 2004). In 1975, when a ll Dutch mines were closed, the market of coal mining almost disappeared especially due to the large-scale utilization of natural gas (JONG, 2004). The oil cris is of 1978 had an effect on the closure program in the Netherlands and thus the Ministry of Economic Affairs arranged to re- start mining operation (WEEHUI ZEN 1974: JONG, 2004). In 1978 , however, it was conclud (MESS From t closure The M explor a 1987; J econom in the e 2004). techno In the energy In 197 5 them, O case fo and pu Figure (c Kerkra d ed that lo ING, 199 8 ime to tim of coal m inistry of E tion camp J ONG, 200 ic affairs nergy ma However, logies in th second ha market fr o 5 , the Neth ranje-Na r other coa blic use ar -2.4: Loc a losed box e had st ng term p 8 ; JONG, 2 e, oil crisis ining activ conomic aign to stu 4). Dutc h to suspen rket nee d economi e market lf of the tw m coal m erlands cl ssau, was l mining a eas. tion of the x es) in Sou arted to p rospects w 004). came up ities or re Affairs ord dy the re Geologic d further e s a short- c conditio (JONG, 2 0 entieth c ining to oi osed down closed in reas whic former mi th Limburg Sourc roduce c 46 ere defini to the ma started the ered the maining D al Survey xploration term renew ns are no 04). entury, the l, natural g all its coa 1971 [2 5 h were reg nes (trans (Mijnstre e e: JONG, oal since tely closed rket dev e coal prod Dutch Ge utch coal prepared (JONG, 2 al of inla t stable re was a as and nu l mining a 5 ] . This are enerated parent box k). [ON: O 2004 medieval with the lopment w uction. In ological S reserves ( an advice 004). Th e nd coal p due to th shift in th clear pow reas (JO N a suffere from coal x es) and re ranje Na s times (J O state mine hich affec the early urvey to s VAN LEE to the min current s roduction e emergin e direction er (JONG G, 2004). d a lot, as mining to h maining re sau mines NG, 2004 Emma ted the 1980s, tart an UWEN, istry of ituation (JONG, g new of the , 2004). One of is the ousing serves .] 4 ). The opening industr Differen away fr stared produc of Dutc In 196 5 negativ 10-yea down a develop area as small m the are exploit a South L of the O ial develo t stateme om the po to get invo tion (MESS h coal min Figure - 5 , the Dutc e effects o r program nd closed ment in t an urban onuments a. Curren tion in the imburg (J ranje Na pment of nts for th litical and lved in on ING, 19 8 es were b 2.5: Yearl y h governm n the env (JONG, , which c he area. open spa were use tly, there Netherla J ONG, 200 ssau mine the coal e Netherla economic ly later pre 8 8; JONG, etween 12 Dutch Co Sourc ent decid ironment 2004). C o aused the The redev ce or enco d as a re are no nds. All fo 4). 47 in 1899 reserves nds coal centre (J venting to 2004). B e and 14 M al Produc e: JONG, ed to clos (JONG, 2 0 nsequentl regenera elopment uraging th miniscent further de rmer coal in Heerle (ENGEL mining de ONG, 200 o much fo tween 19 2 t yearly (F tion betwe 2004 e all its m 04). The y, all the tion imple program w e new eco of the for velopmen mining ar n displaye EN, 198 9 velopmen 4). The D reign influ 5 and 19 6 igure-2.5) en 1847 a ines due mines wer mining fa mentation as aimed nomic de mer coal m t activities eas are cl d a syste 9 ; JONG, t commen utch Gove ence on t 6 7, the pro nd 1975 to high co e closed w cilities we as part at regain velopment ining ind for futu osed and matical 2004). ced far rnment he coal duction sts and ithin a re shut of new ing this . Some ustry in re coal filled in 48 Table-2.6: Analysis Table for Oranje Nassau Regeneration Project Analysis Table Urban Regenera t i o n Project Organization Model Central Authority Economi c Values All coal mines were shut down and were transf o r me d to other indu st r i e s for the re-lif e of areas. Envir o n me n t a l Value s The regio n under w e n t an unpre c e d e nt e d redev e l o p m e n t progr a m (“fro m black to green”) and new industries replaced the for mer mining indust r y . Social Values A fair safety distanc e to the old workin g s areas should be maintai n e d in order to protection of society and keeping them into this area for the health y life. Creator of Projec t Centra l Authority, Private Sector Source: [25] The problem of coal mining is common all over the world. Many coal mining areas are affected by vacancy and abandonment problems, which, in turn, results in many other problems in urban development. The Brownfield dilemma has been complicated by contamination problems. Vacancy sites and economic decline have been major concerns in all steps of the project implementation. The Brownfield problem might lead to new development options in the city centre. In this case, the Netherlands created neighborhood and public use areas in its former coal mining sites that helped to regain and reuse these sites as integrated into the urban development. Additionally, Brownfield areas play a key role in satisfying public demands and in new development options. In this sample implementation in Brownfield sites, the proj ect has been enough to mitigate and regenerate the former coal mining areas. Duisbu The Ru North o East a differen urbaniz many s importa region, related for loca 1838 , w industry near in Figure rg Nord La hr Area is f Düsseld nd betwee t characte z ed and s maller an nt role aft which sta to the ind l and reg hen it bec was sup dustry in th -2.6: Ove r ndscape P a region orf betwee n the rive ristics wi uburbaniz e d larger er early 19 rted in th ustrializatio ional use ame poss ported by e Ruhr re view of th S ark and Z in Germa n the rive r Ruhr an th 5 milli o d landsc towns and 9 00s in Eu e middle n of the r existed, t ible to cut the iron i gion (DIJ K 49 e Oranje N ource: [2 6 ollverein E ny in the r Rhine in d the Lipp n inhabit ape (DIJ K villages rope (DIJ K of the nine egion” (DIJ he growth the marl s ndustry an , 2002). assau fro 6 ] ssen in G state of N the We s e (DIJK, ants in th , 2002). T (DIJK, 2 0 , 2002). “ teenth ce J K, 2002). of the m tratum (D d this situ m past to p ermany; ordrhein-W t and the 2002). Th e project he Ruhr 02). The The vast u ntury, wa Although ining indu IJK, 2002 ) ation esta resent W estphalia Sauerland e area ha area whi Area con region t rbanizatio s overwhe some coal stry starte . The coal blished th to the in the s many ch has sists of ook an n of the lmingly mining d after mining e other 50 The process of industrializat ion of the region had continued until the 1960s (DIJK, 2002). Since 1870s, the Ruhr was already seen as quite important for German economic growth and political power (DIJK, 2002). New branches were developed at the end of the nineteenth century, but all these new industries were depending on coal, steel and machine building. “ Between 1871 and 1905 the population was increased from 723,000 to 2,6 million inhabitants” (DIJK, 2002). Depending on industry development, the population movement increased in the area. But currently many younger people are leaving the area, because of the shutdown of the industries in the region (DIJK, 2002). In this current development, population decreased in the Ruhr region, as is the case for the whole country (Table-2.7). The demographic structure was slowly changed from young generation to an old one. Also, a movement of migration started, which led to shrinking problem in the Ruhr region. Table-2.7: Population Development in Selected German Cities between 1990 and 2004 CITY POPULATION 31.12.1990 31.12.2004 CHANGE BOCHUM 396.000 382.000 -3,5% DORTMUND 598.000 585.000 -2% DUISBURG 535.000 503.000 -6% CHEMNITZ 296.000 246.000 -17% HALLE 311.000 238.000 -23% SCHWERIN 128.000 99.456 -22% Source: FRIESECKE, 2007 The Ruhr was not only the industrial heart of Germany, but it is also the industrial heart for the whole of Europe for more than 100 years [27] . Ruhr Region was characterized by late industrialization, but it was pursued recklessly and on a grand 51 scale [28]. The crisis on the heavy indu stries was come up with outstanding dimensions to the Emscher Region. Widespread Brownfield and urban decay provided an opportunity for regenerating structure and environment. According to Dijk (2002) gener al problems in the area were determined with following statements; ¾ “The development of new growth zones in non-industrial areas and the removal of economic activities. ¾ Ecological problems and bad housing situations. ¾ One-sidedness of economic activities and strong impact of traditional core industries of early industrialization; a failure in diversification of economic activities and dependency on large industries”. This dramatic development resulted in many abandoned houses and abandoned areas in the Ruhr region. International (Emscher Park) Building Exhibition (IBA) was established for the problem solution as a ten years program to redevelop economic, social, ecological perspectives on the area [29]. IBA has achieved many successful projects in the area in this period. IBA has a private sector status which is supported by governmental structures for the revitalized Emscher Region [28]. IBA projects might be listed in terms of general approaches as follows (ZLONICKY, 1999): ¾ “Industrial monuments convey a message of culture; they are signs in a landscape devoid of orientation marks, marks of regional identity in an area which so far had difficulties to win its inhabitants’ and visitors’ affection. ¾ Differentiated forms for dwelling are to be provided, including the maintenance of the existing stock, especially the old workers’ cottages with garden-city features, and innovations with new building forms on Brownfield sites”. Duisbu “Germa coal mi boome decline migrate environ Ruhr R Region smelter designe industr The he now a activitie Zollver The are on an Schupp Figur rg Nord La ny`s Ruh ning and d with co in recent to othe ment. The egion. Du . Duisburg . After th d as Lan ial heritage art of the place of in s [27]. ein Essen a is defin area of 5 5 and Mar e -2.7: IBA ndscape P r area, pa steel-manu al, steel a years. Aft r areas, IBA agen isburg La Landscap e closure dscape Pa backgro u park is a dustrial he ed as an i 5 hectares tin Kremm action ar Source: ark rticularly E facturing nd other er the shu which c cy achiev ndscape P e Park a r of all ind rk which nd. It cov disused T ritage and ndustrial a (KUNZM er and it 52 ea in the c ZLONICK mscher D centers” ( related in t-down of aused ec ed many p ark is on ea is one ustries an is a usefu ers about hyssen S at the sa rcheology ANN, 200 was clos ontext of t Y, 1999 istrict, wa LATZ+PA R dustries, all these i onomic d rojects m e of these of the form d coal m l recreatio 200 hecta teelworks - me time a and indus 6). It wa s ed in 19 8 he Ruhr re s one of TNERS, which hav ndustries, ecline an ainly in the successf er sites o ining area nal and p res, mainl unique his venue fo try identity designed 8 6 (KUNZ gion Europe`s 2005). Th e been i people sta d contam built site ul project s f coal min s, the are ublic area y Brownfie toric settin r different . It is esta in 1932 MANN, 20 largest e areas n great rted to inated s in the in the e and a a was within ld [27]. g, and leisure- blished by Fritz 06). In 2001, t the de Koolha (KUNZ Zollvere (KUNZ The urb industr new ec industr develop disadva importa (Figure The lev Region created Obviou his site wa velopment as prepar MANN, 20 in School MANN, 20 an transf ial areas. M onomic d ial areas ment. Th ntage in t nt implem -2.8). Figur el of succ . These B sustaina sly, all the s chosen of heavy ed a ma 06). Th e of Manag 06). ormation p any deve imensions of Germ e IBA offe he Ruhr r entations e -2.8: Vi e ess of Br rownfield ble way of se proje c as a Wo r industry ster plan area inclu ement and rocess is loped cou . German any was red to rest egion [27] that succ w of Zollv S ownfield p projects a solutions ts reveale 53 ld Heritage in Europ on an des a vis Design, C currently f ntries star y is one renovate ore the ol . From this essfully s erein Coal ource: [3 0 rojects h a re shown with econ d that the Site as a e (KUNZM area of 1 itor cente asino Re aced with ted to suff of these d and br d industria perspect hows indu Mining Ind ] ve been r as a ke y omic, eco level of a represen ANN, 20 million r, design c staurant, a the proble er from th countries ought to l region a ive, Zollve strial her ustry Com ealized b y in develo logical an nalysis int tative exa 06). Tod a m2 in Zo enter NR public pa m of aba is problem and the h the new nd to rem rein is one itage of m plex   IBA in th pment an d social a o the situ mple of y Rem llverein W, The rk etc... ndoned due to eart of urban ove the of the eaning e Ruhr d have spects. ation in abando through implem The pro sufficie in Germ Zollvere postind but still develop through ned areas an analy entation. jects ha v nt enough an proje c in is one ustrial dev urban ne a precis a new tec Fig is not su sis from e not bee to unders ts, as is t of the pro elopment cessities a e solution hnique. ure -2.9: O fficient. H the top o n able to a tand the p he case f jects that . Design i re not ana for and a ver view o Source: A 54 opefully, f planning nalyze th roblem in or the proj provided s covered lyzed ad e nalyze al f Duisbur NONYM O this study decision e state of a detailed j ects of th a new dim by regain quately in l aspects g Nord Lan US, 2003 will help and botto abandone way. This e UK and ension of ing the a this proj e of the aba dscape P to close t m of the d areas in can be ob the Nethe thinking o bandoned ct. This st ndoned p ark his gap design a way served rlands. ver the areas, udy will roblem 55 Figure -2.10: Panoramic view for Duisburg Nord Landscape Park Source: [31], (Christoph Moseler`s images) 56 Table-2.8: Analysis Table for Duisburg Nord Landscape Park and Zollverein Coal Mining Industry Complex Regeneration Project Analysis Table Urban Regenera t i o n Project Organization Model Public Sector, Local Author i t y , Privat e Sector Economi c Values Cultura l heritag e has become a key factor in improv i n g people surrou n d i n g s , and encouraging economic development (LOURES, 2009). Environ me n t a l Values From the be ginnin g , principl e s of ecology and sustain a b i l i t y guided design and imple me n t a t i o n of this new lands c a pe (LATZ+P A R T N E R S , 2005). Remn ants and demnol i s h e d struct u r e s were reused in planti n g substr a t e s , recycl e d concen t r e t e , or new paving mater i a l s (LATZ + P A R T N E R S , 2005) . Social Values About two millio n people live in the region , and in the late 1980s the unemp l o y me n t rate excee d 15% (LABELL A , 2001). The ecologi c a l degrad a t i o n was mirror e d by phscho l o g i c a l resign a t i o n among muc h of the popula t i o n (LABEL L A , 2001). Creator of Project IBA (Intern ational Building Exhibition) Source: LABELLA, 2001 and LATZ+PARTNERS, 2005 and LOURES, 2009 All these projects displayed general gui delines for other regeneration projects; ¾ Renovate, renew or reuse some existi ng buildings depending on the project implementation, ¾ If buildings have some historical importance or special background, they should be maintained as a museum or landmark. 57 ¾ Preserve existing vegetation and s upport this vegetation within new design approaches, ¾ Provide a variety of leisure activities and areas for cultural activities ¾ Clean and reconstruct the whole area within regeneration approach, ¾ Provide public participation in the process of the implementation regeneration project, ¾ Provide economic revitalizati on in the area development, ¾ Provide integration with existing surroundings. These projects should ensure coordinati on between appropriate development and sustainable planning process in order to have appropriate planning development. According to Pediaditi (2006), Brownf ield redevelopment puts forward some opportunities as described below; ¾ “Brownfield redevelopment is believed to offer the opportunity to revitalize communities while simultaneously permitting the use of existing infrastructure and easier integration of the project into the wider urban context (DETR, 1998) ¾ Brownfield redevelopment offers the opportunity to create a more spatially integrated, mixed urban environment composed of resource efficient and high quality buildings. ¾ Brownfield redevelopment is also promoted on the assumption of its ability to reduce pressure to develop Greenfield sites (GRIMSKI et al, 1998)”. The evaluation of the urban process requires an approach to appropriate planning in order to be able to solve the problems concerned. In this case, urban abandonment is one of the most important problems which could be integrated with the surrounding development within social, ecological and economic approaches. All these approaches need to be adaptable to the areas and their features. This particular development could establish general principles for future projects and be helpful for prospective researchers. 2.4. Principles of Urban Regeneration Implementation Regeneration strategies are often criticized for structural socio-economic problems of 58 places (RACO, 2003). Their impact has a broad range which affects areas of political, economic, ecological and social features. All these parameters affect the places and place development for the regeneration approach from past to present. In this sense, the prestige of abandoned areas should be maintained through historical background and social integration. All the places need a creation of economic background that will help them to adapt themselves to and survive in the land use development. Political parameters also affect decision makers about development direction on the land. Ecological, economic and social background also describes place identity and value. All these principles are assessed in the regeneration projects of Brownfield redevelopment. These fundamental features are summarized as follows; ¾ Sustainable approaches cover the whole social community from top to bottom in Brownfield redevelopment, ¾ Sustainable development for the community requires balance between communities expected and areas needed, ¾ Brownfield redevelopment provides society with economic gains needed for the areas sustainability, ¾ Brownfield redevelopment maintains the balance between ecological value and usage of community, ¾ Brownfield redevelopment should emphasize t he identity of areas, ¾ Regeneration projects pr ovide variety and alternatives for the redevelopment concept, ¾ Political decisions should also help to develop abandoned and regain the urban areas development. All these principles must be combined together and serve as a guide to the regeneration projects im plementation. Major urban regenera tion projects are justified by the public interest in recovering obsolete architectural heritage (COUCH et al, 2002; ORUETA, 2006). They are also needed in order to represent a new economic attraction for the area development. Ecological support could provide more public attraction and value to the area development in the urban regeneration projects. 59 According to Ayataç (2003) , regeneration may use the following principles for success in sustainability of the regaining areas through the urban development; 1-Economic Principles ¾ Economic potential of the city should be utilized. ¾ There should be a defined budget for public investments. ¾ Recognising construction as an economic driver in its own right in stimulating local economies [22]. ¾ Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment [22]. ¾ There should be a competition among architects and developers and it should be encouraged. 2-Social Principles ¾ Social structure and pattern should be well known. ¾ People should be made conscious of the conservation of urban spaces. ¾ Social progress which recognizes the needs for everyone [22]. ¾ Local People supportive. ¾ A feeling of ownership and belonging should be developed. 3-Regulatory and Administrative Principles ¾ Should have a defined and regular managerial, legal and financial environment. ¾ Should have a system sustainable independent from parties and politics. ¾ Should be able to produce innovative and contemporary regulations. 4-Planning Principles ¾ Broad-participation partnership: an appropriate partnership should be developed with different local authorities, government and other participants in the design and application of urban regeneration programmes. ¾ General and local strategies: local development strategies should be redefined according to any national structure,; there should be main principles. ¾ Policies on local and national level: policies on a local and national level should be understandable. 60 ¾ Application methods: New methods should be searched for transitions in urban life and new evaluations. 5-Design Principles ¾ Urban Design Pattern: there should be a strong urban pattern even apparently at the level architectural elements; conservation s hould be a simple design guide. ¾ Design guide: there should be a simple design guide. ¾ Secure Spaces: Defensible spaces should be included,. Areas hosting crime and vandalism, if any, should be determined. ¾ Aesthetics and Comfort: public contribution should be a precondition for a better appearance and comfort. ¾ Urban Landscape: landscape should be an important component in design pattern. ¾ Urban Design principles and applications are physical mediator’s regeneration. Therefore; it creat es an urban image ¾ Facilities access to inhabitable urban spaces, supports effective use of urban land and urban development ¾ Creates accessible and secure spaces ¾ Restores spaces of collapse to the city ¾ Creates secure public spaces and streets accessible in human scale ¾ Creates visually quality and attractive spaces ¾ Changes urban behaviours, contributes to the cultural environment, develops quality in urban life ¾ Plays a role in the change of position and role of cities within the country and its region ¾ Encourages mixed use ¾ Ensures continuity between old and new urban pattern, establishes an integrity ¾ Encourages creativity ¾ Ensures economic liveliness ¾ Encourages investment to urban spaces Old industrial districts and areas are still geographically important in the cities located 61 at easy access, near to sources, provided well design infrastructure etc. In this sense, Brownfield abandoned areas need an integration of new cities development planning. In this particular integration, regeneration principles will be a guide to the healthy and planning development. 2.5. Potential Development on the Derelict Areas within Urban Regeneration Projects Derelict areas refer to totally empty urban spaces and no use of any facilities and death of the usage places. For example, many buildings erected during the construction boom of the 1920s have been de stroyed and turned into empty buildings in Detroit (COLLINS, 2003). The areas will soon have no cinemas, no bookshop, no jobs etc., which will give opportunities for new development and ideas for regenerating the areas. Ergenekon (2003) explains pos itive aspects of urban regeneration and how it can act as an agent for public interests: ¾ Preferences of society: precedence and preferences for making policies and decisions should be given to the society. ¾ Relationship with planning: Urban regeneration projects should be evaluated within city plan and city program. ¾ General needs of the site: ƒ A land use should be prepared for the general needs of the site ƒ The marketing opportunities ƒ The sheltering opportunities of the landowners in the project area ƒ The project boundaries must be arr anged in a way that will include the most dilapidated areas. Thus, the neighbourhood areas can be developed and improved. Places are increasingly being encouraged to develop local solutions to local problems (AMIN and THRIFT, 1995; TURO K 1999; RACO, 2003) which is need to understand the identity and history of the areas, so that politics and local strategies of abandoned areas are enhanced for the redevelopment of the areas. Derelict areas 62 also provide opportunities for local identities and strategies in a new development approaches. Abandoned areas have the potential for raising environmental standards and the quality of development and bringing life to the areas within new project implementations. Accessibility is the main issue for the use of areas, which is another potential option for abandoned areas development. In this case, urban abandoned areas could be displayed as a new face of development for the urban development. Generally, abandoned areas provide some potential options in the urban regeneration and development. The options are presented below; ¾ Abandoned areas protect urban green areas, which provides an opportunity for development and new urbanization, ¾ Abandoned areas provide a new economic dimension for the cities, ¾ Provide higher public awareness and satisfy public demands in a better way, ¾ Symbol of the cultural heritage for future generations, ¾ Provide “landmarks” for the new regeneration projects, wh ich is important for tourism and new economic attractions, ¾ Provide intervention between local authorities and public, ¾ Provide open space in the limited urban space which is majorly occupied by settlements. Characterizations of the success or failure of places play a central role in shaping patterns of future rounds of investment and disinvestment (MASSEY, 1996; HUDSON, 2000; RACO, 2003). For this reason, land potentials have important role in redevelopment and provide opportunities for the future. In this sense, urban abandoned areas bring a number of potentials for future development. 2.6. Structural Change of the Derelict Areas Globalization is the most effective econo mic part of the spatial development. This new phenomenon currently changes planning approaches and structural development in cities. In the globalization process, industrial areas started to decline and then turned into derelict areas. Derelict areas are those areas that are 63 transformed from former industrial areas to new structural uses such as heritage buildings (as landmarks), museums or tota lly removed with respect to planning and design processes. Former industrial areas reveal that the urban planning process has been dominated by global economic development and that regeneration of abandoned industrial areas is an advantage. Growth and investment are seen as sources of strength in an increasingly fierce climate of competition between places for hierarchical status and prestige (RACO, 2003). The identity of areas plays a key role in reflecting and reproducing particular forms of structural changes. Rebuilding places in this globalization process determi nes the reconstruction of imagination of new places. There is a dialectical relationship between the new globalizat ion process and urban forms, which is giving a new shape also for the abandoned areas. In an effort to promote new economic directions and social movements, urban regeneration projects are used to re shape the structure of abandoned areas. Creation of new forms and meaning for abandoned areas depends on the current economic competitiveness reshaped by the urban structures. 2.7. Conclusion As a consequence, places put greater emphasis on selling themselves as centers of success (RACO, 2003). Urban regeneration projects need more sustainable approaches and particular attention to the areas of history. Places with negative images may find it increasingly difficult to attract needed investments (KEARNS and PADDISON, 2000; RACO, 2003). In this si tuation, derelict areas are needed to extract their value within cultural, natural , architectural and economic backgrounds which are more important for successfully regenerating these areas. The abandoned areas have highlighted the significance of creating new approaches and ideas within urban regeneration projects. In these particular development approaches, place features have been a critical element in new urban regeneration strategies. Particular visions are required for abandoned areas in order to remove the bad image from the urban environment. With this particular attention, urban 64 abandoned areas should not be ignored, habitable areas should be created through sustainable urban planning approaches to solution and new approaches should be prioritized. All projects from Germany, the U.K. and the Netherlands pointed out sustainability within an economic, ecological and social context. The projects might emphasize some general approaches, but they are still unable to satisfy the expectation of cities in an exact manner. The background of projects is generally considered as regaining economic benefit through the design of abandoned areas. Solutions for abandoned areas need specifically to define the expecta tions of cities development, and to bring other requirements as well as economic benefits. This study will determine a new approach through quantitative and qualitative analyses to the abandoned areas. This technique enables one to conduct a detailed analysis from general problem definition to design decisions on the abandoned areas. This study may bring the precise design content on the abandoned areas. In addition, the study could help to solve the shrinking problem through new development methods for cities. Urban regeneration approaches makes an attempt to find solutions for overall problems of the abandoned, slum and negative face of the city. The concept of urban regeneration can therefore go through the way of design implementation on the project area. Especially these conditi ons lay the foundation for other urban regeneration projects. Consequently, the operation of urban regeneration can be determined with economic, ecological and social objective s. These objectives were extracted from former implementations of urban regeneration, which will integrate social, physical and economic outcomes for a new urban regeneration implementation in city development. 65 3-DEFINITION OF URBAN REGENERA TION AREAS IN TURKEY AND URBAN STRUCTURA L EFFECTS The urbanization process in Turkish cities is inevitably going to lead to the expansion of land use and population growth. Even so, But population growth significantly decreased from 2.5% (1980- 1985) to 2.2% (1985-1990) (I ŞIK and GÜVENÇ, 1999). Additionally, according to the census tak en in November 1997, the Turkish population grew at an annual average of 1, 5% during 1990-1997 period (I ŞIK and GÜVENÇ, 1999). This development shows a radical transformation in urban areas under the economic, social and political restructuring process starting from 1980s (DURSUN and EKMEKÇ İ, 2010). Many cities in industrialized world and in Turkey are now facing a declining population and often in associated with the loss of job and overall economic decline (MULDER, 2010). Migration is one of the main urbanizati on processes that deeply influence the development of Turkish cities. A typical problem concerning migration in urban areas is the unplanned development issue, whereas for abandoned areas is the deterioration of the urban environment (TAKEUCHI and HANAKI, 2005). In Turkey, migration from rural areas to the cities began with severe effects on the cities in the 1950s (ERDÖNMEZ and ÖZDEN, 2009). Currently, some Turkish cities attract many people and show sprawl problem in the city development. On the contrary, some Turkish cities cope with shrinking problem and suffer from the tangible consequences of this development. Shrinking cities lose significant portion of their residents over time, which is typical of industrial and mining cities (LINDSEY, 2007). This chapter discusses the Turkish urbanization process re lated to economic, political, social and cultural developments from past to present. The analysis of Turkish urbanization process can also help to define the tendencies of current urbanization development in Turkey. 3 . 1 . The Dynam i c s of the Urban i z a t ion in TURKEY The urbanization process of Turkish cities has brought about some crucial points on the basis of social, political and economic development. Migration between rural and urban areas is generally undertaken as a result of many economic and social problems. An important approach to rural-urban population movement is Ebenezer Howard urban obvious town o afte r y e but fe w tow n - c o disadv a cities fa Presen thanks These Hall an cities. T are rev over cit and ind and inf `s three m planning ( ly be app o f f e r e d ec o e ar s of a g w jobs, p o o un t r y , co u a nt a g e s ” ( iled to ma t condition to many s services a d Ward (1 hey belie ersed (HA y develop ustrializing ormation-h agnet the SVENDSE lied to Tur o n o m i c so c g ric u l t u r a l d o ur social u ld of fer a l HALL, 20 intain the s in urban ervices su lways attra 998) revi s ved that H LL and W ment in re as a sou andling o ory (Figur N, 2009) kish cities c ial oppor t d e p r e s s i o n oppor tuni t l l the adva 0 0 0). Nev e balance b developm ch as acce ct people Figure-3.1 S ed the Ho oward’s d ARD, 19 cent years rce of emp ccupation 66 e-3.1). Thi . Howard` developm t u n i t y , but n , in cont r a t ies and o ntages of rtheless, etween tow ent in Tu ssibility to and result : The Thr e ource: [3 2 ward’s t h iagram sti 9 98). The d . This pr loyment a (NOYELLE s idea ex e s original ent. Accor degrade d a s t offere d verall po v t o wn and c unlike H o n and co rkish citie the educ in migratio e Magnets ] eory in ter ll encapsu eindustria ocess is th nd its repl and STA rted a ma three mag ding to Ho d environ m d a n unpol l v erty. But t c ountry wi t ward`s a untry popu s attract c ational are n to Turk ms of new lates contr lization p e decline acement b NBACK, jor impact net theor ward (18 9 m e n t. The c l uted env i r t he third m t hou t con c pproach, lation mov ountry pop as and ho ish cities. develop ast, but po rocess ha of manufa y jobs in s 1984; GE R on 20 th y could 9 8), “ the c ountry, r onme n t m agnet, c omit a n t Turkish ement. ulation spitals. ment in larities s taken cturing ervices TLER, 67 1985). This process also causes the decentralization of economic activity to the fringes of metropolitan areas and to previously peripheral regions or countries (LONSDALE and SEYER, 1979; SAWER S and TABB, 1984; GERTLER, 1985). Unlike Howard`s prescription, recent prog ress of decentralization shows significant population movement periphery or fringe of town in many cities. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the term “shrinking city” has been used widely in developed countries (WOLFF, 2010). It is used in the context of demographic change, economic decline or even suburbanization (ANDERSEN, 2005; WOLFF, 2010). The ur banization process in Turkey started to affect the deindustrialization process in the last decade. Increasing globalization and post- industrial development has forced a new development in Turkish cities. Consequently, Turkish city development has encountered many challenges from past to present. Economic, political and social-cultural dimensions are useful points in order to understand the urbaniza tion process in Turkey. Economic Dimension When the Turkish Republic was estab lished in 1923, the country had been devastated by economic conditions (ÖZCAN , 2006). In Turkey, the level of economic development started with governmental support all over the country. Economic policies that appeared in Turkey in these years all tried to regain economic conditions in the country. Government could foster the development of private entrepreneurs by helping the rates of return from private investment through direct government subsidies in these years (ADELMAN, 1999) . This economic development led to urban services in Turkish cities. In these years, the government took a number of factor s into consideration while selecting the site for industrial areas and proved to be the driving force behind the economic development for Turkish cities. This progress has transformed the places from rural small towns into developing cities, such as Karabük. The effects of the Marshall Plan9 on the Turkish economy appeared in 1952. The mechanization of 9 To see for more information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan 68 Turkish agriculture was a result of th e implementation of the Marshall Plan (ÖZBUDUN and ULUSAN, 1980). The U.S. Ma rshall Aid provided core industrial development in cities. The Marshall Aid and its impact had mainly on accelerating people migration from rural areas to the cities in Turkey. Mechanization reduced the need for manual labor in the farmland (BARNESTON, 2009). This development was a result of the accelerated urban migration in Turkey. This rapid pace of urbanization was posing major challenges as well as opportunities in Turkish cities (SANJAYKUMAR, 2008). One of the major challenges was Urban Sprawl, which was an inevitable outcome of Turkish urbanizati on process resulting in various problems in the cities at this time (SANJAYKUMAR, 2008). Turkish urbanization process leaded to the growth of cities related to industrial and economic development in these periods (TURAN and BESIRLI, 2008). Industrialization of Turkish cities st imulated labor demand and created opportunities for employment and the other types of income generation (FUKUNISHI, MURAYAMA and YAMAGATA, 2006). Industr ialization and fast urbaniza tion process triggered labor migrations in the cities. In practice, this urban economic policy was the reason for fast urbanization development for some Turkish cities such as Ankara and Istanbul. The development of Ankara has l ed to a rapid increase in the services sector more than industrial sector. In particular, globalization is often seen as a key to new urbanization process all over the wo rld. A shrinking problem has developed based on a particular conception of this global economic change (THORNLEY, 1999). This development is the reason for t he new problems in Turkish cities. Political Dimension In the early years of the Turkish Repub lic, development of the rural areas was supported by governmental policy. Held between 1923 and 1938, the Izmir Economic Congress10 can be seen as the first initiative to determine the Republic’s economic policy and political decisions (AKTAN, 1991). The Izmir Economic Congress had deep consequences on both rural areas and urban areas with spatial political decisions. These decisions pointed out the following important issues; 10 To see for more information: http://en.wiki pedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0zmir_Economic_Congress 69 ¾ The republican government controlled financial resources and gave political decisions for the city at macro and micro levels of spatial implementation (ÖNGE, 2007) ¾ The Izmir Economic Congress emphasized mining, electricity power, machinery and equipment, and building ce ment and sugar factories in some provinces (AKTAN, 1991). ¾ To handle the industrial fields whose raw materials were inland and easily obtainable (INAN, 1972; TAKIM and YILMAZ, 2010) ¾ To ensure the need and consumption of the produced goods were directly proportional, while specifying the production capacity of the factories which were thought to be established (INAN, 1972; TAKIM and YILMAZ, 2010). The economic and political changes are both the causes and effects of the rural- urban migration (COLES, 2001). Rural populat ion movement was not significantly increased in urban areas until 1950 in Turkey. The peri od of 1950s in Turkey was mainly shaped by the shift to multiparty democracy from single party (ÖZTÜRK and ÇIRACI, 2010). This development triggered lar ge migration from rural areas to urban areas. Besides, these political decisions could have led to a loss of balance between rural and urban population movement. Turkish cities underwent intensive of population growth during these periods. This radical political decision was the reason for the acceleration of the urbanization process in Turkey. Increasing levels of urbanization were induced by natural growth of the urban population and migration of the rural population towards cities [33] . This sudden increase in population also caused several problems in cities like traffic congestion, housing, sanitation and health (PORIO, 2009). In alignment with this development, the population of rural areas has had great tendency to settle in metropolitan areas. This pressure brought about the enlargement of urban areas even more and revealed a lack of enough housing in the cities (Figure-3.2). Squatter settlements were the main solution for the housing problem and it was the reason of unplanned development in the cities. Genera factor a “amne s et al., 2009), laws. T has out service develop The loc feasible settlem squatte (ÖZLE R politica compet role in t Socia l a Turkis h Figure-3.2 lly, squatt cceleratin ty law” th a 2005). In the squatt he degree paced the s (MELES ment and al authorit solution ents have r votes ca , 2000). l parties, w itive elect hese spat a nd Cultu r economic : Squatter er settlem g and enc t transfor 1948, th e er settlem of the ph capacity o SE, 200 rapid ex p ies failed for squa easily ex p n be trace The issue hich used ions (ÖZL ial structur r a l Dimen s and polit House (G Sourc ents occu ouraging med illega laws num ents partic ysical ex p f the city 5). Squat ansion in t to stop urb tter settle anded in d back to of squatte patronag ER, 2000) es develo s i o n ical strate 70 ecekondu ) e: [34] a n pied vaca the squatt l settlemen ber 521 8 ularly star ansion of governme ter settlem he cities. an spraw ment (ZIG the Turki s the early r settlem e to mob . These po pment in T gies were Developm d [35] nt properti er settlem t to legal 8 and 52 2 ted to be the squat nt’s infras t ents cau l and they MANN, 2 h cities in days of m ents has h ilize votes litical app urkish citi e shaped b ent in Tur es in the c ent was th settlemen 8 were e legalized b ter settlem ructure an sed signi could not 007). Th this period ultiparty e istorically from the roaches h s. y a comb kish Citie s ities. The e appear ts (ERGEN nacted (D y these a ents of th d the basi ficant unp manage t erefore, s . The vola lections in been cou very begin ave playe ination of crucial ance of OĞLU OĞAN, mnesty e cities c urban lanned o find a quatter tility of Turkey rted by ning of d a key internal 71 and external pressures and influences in the post Second World War years (ÖZCAN, 2000). These economic and political processes brought out social and cultural alteration in Turkish cities. De finite alteration on cultural and social life was started with joining NATO and with ex terior sources of the Marshall Aid in Turkish cities. These developments allowed more accessibility to the urban areas. In particular, the mechanization of agriculture was the main r eason of the migration from rural areas to urban areas in these periods. These developments have illustrated social and cultural changes leading to substantial alterations of the built environment (SCHALCHER, 2009). The increasing rate of urbanization in the 1950s led to a great lack of ho using and soon to uncontrolled development in the squatter settlements in Turkish cities (YÖNEY and SALMAN, 2010). Low-income citizens moved into the least desirable housing units in collapsed, abandoned old city centers and squatter settlements areas in the cities (DURSUN and EKMEKÇ İ, 2010). People started gradually migrating from village to the cities in the middle of 1940s and this migration caused unsystematic urbanization and fast development after 1950s in the cities. This development pr oduced squatter settlements as the dominant housing in metropolitan cities. According to Keleş (2002), families of squatter house (gecekondu) established continuously squatte r settlement culture in this changeable process. At the same time, this culture became dominant and common culture in the metropolitan areas (KELEŞ, 2002). According to Kıray (1998), other factors in th e change brought about the emergence of the middle class. Therefore, the development of new great capital established a new mid-upper class in Turkish cities. In this way, representative classical cities group for modern urbanization lost their relative superiority to new developing of root of wealthy and rural groups . The 1950s brought about rural migration and reasons for decreasing new wealthy groups changed urban life which gained new dynamics for itself (KIRAY, 1998). Especially, cities started to talk about dual structure (urban nobility-rural root). With the beginning of the 1980s, this dual structure was seen with different housing life 72 styles (TEKELİ, 1982). Although these dual structures continued in metropolitan cities, the urban cultural structure and social layer became the determination level with creation of divided urban value and transfer. Recently, migration wave from rural areas to urban areas almost stopped and this migration created characteristics of regional center cities such as Diyarbak ır, Erzurum, Antalya, and Mersin in Turkey. 3.2. Effects of the Urban Life Style The dynamics of industrial economy produce cycles of business expansion, stagnation and decay in the globalization context [ 4 ] . This development is marked by dramatic decline in both the social and physical infrastructure of inner city (CARTER and POLEVYCHOK, 2003). The EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) defines Brownfield as “Abandoned idled or underused industrial and commercial facilities where expansion or development is complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination” (FIELDS, 1995; [4]) . This definition shows that abandoned or underutilized properties are an obstacle to redevelopment in cities (HETTIARACHCHI et al., 2010) and affect urban areas negatively. The globalization process on in dustrial development affects all types of industrial development in both heavy industrial areas and manufacture areas in Turkish cities. The global industry can introduce a new set of dynamic forces into cities. The process of urbanization and changes rely on an ability to adapt new development trends in the world. The adaptation of new development brings a new problem and new dimension of perspective into cities. Turkish cities have many serious problems from past to present in these new trends of development. Currently, one of the important problems is called shrinking cities or shrinkin g problem. A shrinking city is mainly caused by severe population and job loss in a place [36]. In this process, it is quite difficult to claim that the regional approach and planning development in Turkey follow a uniform and consistent path (POLAT et al., 2011). Today, the growth of cities is characterized by conditions very different from the one in the past. Cities, especially metropolitan areas, are reluctant or find it difficult to cope with the shrinkage increase in the urban development (LI and PIACHAUD, 73 2006). In the process of global competition, some cities not only outperform their rivals, but also outperform them for a considerably long period of time in Turkey (BARCA, COŞKUN and ALTUNIŞIK, 2002). This gives to the cities an advantage in the globalization process in co mpetition with other cities. The majority of competitive cities enjoy distinctive advantages. For in stance, they can adapt themselves to new economic development in an easier way and take part in global development. In many cases, such as the cities in the Black Sea Region, t he economic decline of these industrial sites is felt by their city and their region as whole (BROOKINGS, 2007; SHETTY, 2009). A consequence of t he shrinkage is the challenge of renovating an infrastructure that covers a larger population (SHETTY, 2009). The shrinking problem is crucial in terms of effects on the social and economic life in cities. General characteristics of shrinking cities are defined as follows; ¾ One of the important characteristic feature of Brownfield sites is their negative impact on the neighborhood (TRUSINS, 2005), ¾ Cities lose massive population and ageing causes housing vacancies in this problem (SCHWARZ and HAASE, 2010), ¾ Cities are experiencing a dramatic dec line in their economic and social base [37], ¾ Shrinking cities are ex posed to a combination of high level environmental pollution problems [38]. All these issues greatly influence the development of cities. Also these problems trigger many other problems in city development. These issues affect the quality of life today and will do so in the near future. There is strong evidence that cities are required to overcome the shrinking pr oblem and its destructive influences. This m change in 12 c 1999). (IŞIK a still los The cit and Ar metrop signific The cit many o it is nec Figure-3.3 Sour ap (Figure s that took ities in Tu Between nd GÜVE N ing their po ies of Zong tvin const olitan are ance in th ies in Tu ther probl essary to : Annual G ce: [39], ( T -3.3) provi k place in rkey durin g 1990 and Ç, 1999) pulation t uldak, K a itute area as or to e globaliz rkey gra d ems. In or prevent th rowth Rat urkstat, T des some 2010 in Tu the year 1997, this . Currently o the othe stamonu, s of depre the surro z ation pro ually enco der to ach e problem 74 e of Popu urkey`s S t important rkey. The s between number in , regions o r regions. Karabük, ssion wh unding cit cess (GÖ unter dei ieve susta of shrink a lation in 20 atistical Y clues with massive p 1985 an d creased fr f Black S e Bartın, Sin ile they a ies. The KŞIN and ndustrializ inable dev ge. 10 by Pro earbook, 2 regard to opulation 1990 (I Ş om 12 to 2 a and Eas op, Baybu re losing industry MÜDER R z ation prob elopment vinces (% 010) the demo decline ap IK and GÜ 6 cities in tern Anat rt, Kars, A population sector lo İSOĞLU, lems alon for Turkis ) graphic peared Ü VENÇ, Turkey olia are rdahan to the ses its 2005). g with h cities, 75 3.3. Effects of the Urban Management System (Cooperation between local management and public) The globalization process taking place in the context of information society provides a broad range of opportunities (STRATIGEA and GIAOUTZI, 2000) and problems in cities. This economic development has been introduced to address economic restructuring, neighborhood decline and population loss in Turkish cities (SIEGEL and WAXMAN, 2001). Globalization and in dustrial re-structuring lead to marginalization, impoverishment and social ex clusion for large number of people in the cities (CASTLES, 1999). Because of this development, the solution for deindustrialization must focus on cooper ation between local authority and people. This restructuring process brings very important changes to the functional, institutional, and fiscal structure of local governments in Turkish cities (PARLAK et al., 2008). “The more determined revival of interest in public participation in planning today owes a lot to general trends in society and to concerns of government” (ODPM, 2004; TOWNSEND and TU LLY, 2004). With the development of regeneration schemes, city governments undertake this revival of interest in new urban development strategies through the provision of cultural facilities (e.g. concert halls, museums, art galleries etc.) in their cities (SEO, 2002). By using cultural strategies, city governments, particularly older industrial cities, tend to emphasize the positive elements of cities (SEO, 2002). The public life of the cities forms part of new cultural policy understood as a result of the complex interplay between citizens and key actors of urban governance in the globalization context ( HRISTOVA, 2010). The c ooperation between local governments and people provides support for the regeneration of the city image in this process. The local governments struggle with many problems in Turkey. The change in population brings about problems in a large part of city activities as well as in production capacity (OHNO, 2009). This in fluences people’s daily life and it is the reason for economic decay in cities. Turkish cities must adapt themselves to this new development and satisfy expectations of peopl e associated with the necessary social and economic context. 76 In this process, many Turkish cities must be in a struggle to take place in global economic development. Local governments have a key role in providing coordination between expectations of people and new development options in this global process. The globalization must reconsider the role of public participation in and the potential contribution to sustainable development in Turkish cities. Traditional approaches to management and development in cities are required to adapt themselves to new global expectations in the cities. Modern public administration urge cities to innovate, adopt market orientation, and improve transparency and services in a style suited to the 21st century (GADOT and MEUIRI, 2008). This approach creates sustai nable development together with social structure, culture and economy. Local governments must carry out a large number of complex tasks, covering important parts of the welfare system and public services in cities [ 40]. Both public participation and local government take an important role in sustainable development for cities. In the context of globalization, cities are frequently intended as a sort of collateral effect, since it is assumed that the transformation due to globaliz ation implies the co- existence of winners and lose rs (SCOPPETTA, 2011). This drastic development of cities must take public demands and necessities into consideration for solution approaches in Turkey. 3.4. Effects of the Urban Structures and Urban Development Urban structure provides principles for managing development to ensure both the area`s urban and natural character are cons idered in the globalization process for planning development [41]. The role of the globalizat ion process has wide effects on cities and regions in economic development. The kinds of industrial policy needed in the international setting are clearly different from traditional forms of industrialization strategies (LALL, 2004). Currently, the most successful cities pursue and implement coherent and adaptable economic development strategies [42]. The deindustrialization impact of the core on the urban structure has a conflict with sustainable city development. 77 Local government should ensure sustainable development, and coordination with community and demands of people in Brownfield sites. Balanced community can only evolve, if the cities have the schools, health facilities, leisure facilities that together offer a good quality of community life [43] . Local governments in Turkey lack a single dominant management system that can create a significant solution approach with public participation. In order to transform spatial conditions of abandoned areas, alternative policies are implemented through either economic or social schemes (MÜHÜRDARO ĞLU, 2005). The globalization process incr ease regional disparities between winning and losing regions in Turkey (GESANO et al., 20 09). Both urban structure and urban development expose radical transformation during the globalization process. The effects of this process should be considered as a new planning strategy associated with social, economic and ecological approach in Turkish planning system. 3.5. Attempts of the Development Guidelines for Urban-Regional Planning Practice Population movement not only plays a key ro le in the growth of urban centers, but also it strongly influences the social, economic and demographic structure in cities (HUGO, 2003). Currently, deindustrializati on process affects social and economic conditions in cities and regions. Deindustrialization process is the reason for the closure of industrial capacity in cities. Therefore, the suitability of previously developed industrial sites in urban areas should be assessed in accordance with globalization process strategies [44]. Spatial planning and management system need new laws, regulations and guidelines for this current globalization process in Turkey. The planning system in Turkey has a comple x structure (TÜRK, 2 002). This structure has been shaped with various planning laws from the past to present (TÜRK, 2002). These laws are the basic implementations of the urban planning development. In 1930, Municipalities Law was arranged by the government (TÜRK, 2002). The law empowered all municipalities to prepare local physical plans (TÜRK, 2002). The basic purpose of the local physical plan is to plan and develop the settlement areas in a way that will satisfy their needs [45] . But still a local physical plan must be 78 approved by the Minister of Public Works in order for it to be implemented. This suggests that central administration has a clear control over local physical plans in Turkey. Plans are divided into two main sections in Turkey (TÜRK, 2002). The first one is socio-economic plans and the second one is physical plans (TÜRK, 2002). Physical plans are also divided into sections depending on their size, namely physical plans (1/200.000, 1/100.000,1/50.000 and 1/25.000 scale), land-us e plans (zoning plans) (1/5000 and 1/2000 scale), local physical pl ans (1/1000 scale) (TÜRK, 2002).Socio- economic plans include country plans and regional plans. The Turkish planning systems represented by this figure is shown below (Figure-3.4); Figure-3.4: Turkish Planning S ystems and Hierarchy of Plans Source: TÜRK, 2002 Local physical plans in urban areas constitute the healthy urban structure, to provide land development and to regulate the use of private and public land for public interest in Turkey (TÜRK, 2002). A local physical plan is the main tool of the spatial planning implementation in Turkish planning system. An attempt should be made to adapt S O C I O ‐ ECON OMIC  P L A N S   S U P E R I O R  P H Y S I C A L  P L A N S   L O C A L  P H Y S I C A L  P L A N S   S P E C I A L  A I M E D  P L A N S   C O U N T R Y  P L A N S   RE GIO NAL  P L A N S   S U P E R I O R  P H Y S I C A L   STRA TEGY  P L A N S   (1/200.000;  1/100.000)   S U P E R I O R  P H Y S I C A L   P L A N S  ( 1/ 25.000)   LAND ‐US E  P L A N N I N G   ( 1/ 5.000; 1/ 2000)   L O C A L  P H Y S I C A L   P L A N S  ( 1/ 1.000)   79 urban regeneration projects to the local physical plan level in Turkish planning scheme. In the traditional planning approach, local physical plan can carry out all regeneration projects from problem ident ification to plan implementation in cities. Regeneration project in local physical plan can be gradua lly arranged in order to solve shrinking problem in Turkish planning sch eme. It is clear from figure (Figure-3.5) below that local physical plan is the crucial tool of regaining abandoned sites in Turkey. Figure-3.5: Regenerati on Implementation Guidliness for Turkish Cities   Sources: Mustafa Ergen, 2009, (Author`s own construct) Local physical plans [land use planning (1/5 000; 1/2000) and local physical planning (1/1000)] must include the aspect of shri nking problem to find out an appropriate solution. Nowadays, regional and urban shrinkage can be observed (FINA, 2008) in many Turkish cities. Cities need to partici pate in global process through both new laws and guidelines in Turkey. Local governments are responsible for creating more job opportunities, public participation, improved economic conditions, and environmental restoration in L O C A L  P H Y S I C A L   P L A N S   L O C A L  A U T H O R I T Y  a n d   P U B L I C  COOP ERAT ION   RE GE NE RATI ON  P L A N S   a n d  P R O G R A M S   DETERMINED  OF   RE GE NE RATI ON   RES OU RCES   URBAN  R EG E N ERA T I O N   P R O J E C T   80 abandoned areas. Urban regeneration projects create great opportunities in abandoned areas that have precious alternative paths to development in cities (DANIELSON, 2002). Participation of people in regeneration projects is important to understand their expectations in city development. Local physical plan requires an arrangement between local government and public participation in terms of regeneration project impl ementation. Finally, it is obvious that Turkish planning system should be revised for shrinking pr oblem in the globaliz ation process. 3.6. Conclusion Turkish cities have been faced with many urbanization problems from past to present. In recent decades, the effects of deindustrialization have produced largely distressed urban areas (CONWAY and KO NVITZ, 2000; CAMARDA et al., 2010). The spatial planning system in the past is not sufficient to find an obvious solution for the shrinking problem in Turkey. Succe ssful local management, as is nowadays considered within a context of sustainable development, is highly connected with the emergence and implementation of new forms of management systems (GETIMIS and COLLOVINI, 2000). Therefore, the local government must be willing to understand shrinking problem associated with sustainable strategies and approaches in cities. The globalization process affected the economic and political approaches with the transition from industrial development to post industrial development in cities. The reason why migration takes place is that people need new social environments, new economic opportunities and want to adjust themselves to new ways of life style. People started leaving their cities depending on economic conditions, as is the case for Zonguldak, and moved into other cities. Abandoned areas in urban environment can be considered as part of the territorial capital in cities, and this heritage should be socially and economically reintegrated through strategies of reuse (RODA, 2005). Currently, the potential removal of abandoned structures is particularly the main approach to Turkish cities. At this point, the analysis of Turkish cities suffers from problems considering the spatial pattern of the deindustrialization process in Turkey. The factors in the 81 deindustrialization process have negative e ffects on socio-cultural and economic development. In some Turkish cities, ec onomic development has failed to change significantly the extensive type of develop ment and to ensure a successful transition to sustainable development [46] . It should be noted that urban planning and management must focus on the benefits of the shrinking problem and carefully analyze advantages and disadvantages of the solution approaches on the abandoned areas. Turkish cities are confronted with immensel y complex ecological , political, economic and social problems in the globalization pr ocess (HOOVER, 2011). In order to utilize the potential of the cities there is a need for an integral approach in which cities are regarded as arenas where various planning challenges can be tackled in a context (SCHYLBERG, 2011). Finally, it is import ant to emphasize that Turkish planning system must be rearranged not only for the current problems but also for future problems. 82 4- URBAN REGENERATION AREAS and THEIR CONSTRUCTION- INTEGRATION INTO CITY; A CASE STUDY OF ZONGULDAK This chapter offers the best chance to create a completely new methodological approach within existing Brownfield rede velopment implementations (MAIDE and JAKAB, 2007). The method empl oyed in this study describes an appropriate solution for Brownfield redevelopment in cities. To regain Brownfield areas, such quantitative and qualitative methods as SWOT analysis and Grid method with Hierarchical Cluster analysis are applied as a main solution in the study. This method provides a profound effect on urban regeneration approaches to city development. It is not common, also, though not unheard of, to use qualitative and quantitative methods, where these methods construct a model of what must be, then test that model on the abandoned sites (WOODS, 2006). In this study, the specific approach attaches importance to potential integration of methods into the ecological, economic, social and characteristics of abandoned sites. This chapter provides information on the methodological approach of the study to come up with an appropriate solution for Turkish cities. 4.1. Structure (Current) Situation and Development of Zonguldak Located in the Western Bla ck Sea region of Turkey, Zonguldak has an area of 8625 km 2 and covers 1.1% of Turkey’s total l and area (Figure-4. 1) (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Zonguldak generally consists of inclined terrain due to its natural topography. Mountains in the Western Black Sea run parallel to the coast in Zonguldak and they rise sharply from the sea, elevations rising till 1976 meters (ANONYMOUS, 2006). This high mountain system provides a block between the sea and the Central Anatolian Plateaus (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The Western Black Sea region, especially Zonguldak, is a c entre of coal mining and heavy industry [47]. “Turkey’s main hard coal deposits are located in the Zonguldak basin, between Ereğli and Amasra on the Black Sea coast in north-western Turkey” [ 4 8 ]. Most of this ore is utilized by iron, steel industry and power plant in the region. Zongul Coal E produc restricti S The cr substan found MINIST discove which u develop Coal st basin manag The de coal m due to unauth dak is the nterprises- tion, proce ons on pri ource: [4 9 ucial deve tial and d in the ba RY OF R ry of coal sed to be ment. arted to b (GÜNDO Ğ ement of c velopmen ines in this the incr orized ho leading ha Türkiye T ssing and vate secto Figure-4 9 ] and [50] lopment efinite cha sin (T.C. ECONST in Zongul a village, e produce AN, 200 oal mines t of the Zo period. F ease in uses and rd coal su aşkömürü distribut r involvem .1: Locatio , (The Figu of the Zo nge in pr İMAR V RUCTION dak led to was trans d under t 5; I ŞIN, was starte nguldak b isherman the numb unhealthy 83 pplier in T Kurumu ( ion of har ent” [ 48 ]. n of Zongu re is prepa nguldak r e imary eco E İSKAN AND SE a boom o formed to he manag 2009). d by the F asin brou houses we er of coa planning urkey. “ Th TTK) has d coal, a ldak City red by Mu gion sho nomic stru BAKANL TTLEMEN f populatio a city on a ement of f It should rench firm ght many re transfo l miners developm e state-ow a de facto lthough th in Turkey stafa ERG ws that h cture in 1 IĞI, TURK T, 1964; n in the re ccount of oreign firm also be s in the b coal minin rmed into in Zongu ent take ned Turkis monopoly ere are n EN, 2009 ard coal 829 whe n ISH REP IŞIN, 200 gion. Zon rapid eco s in 184 8 noted th asin (IŞIN g worker s settlemen ldak. Sq the lead h Hard on the o legal 9 ) brought it was UBLIC 9). The guldak, nomical 8 in the at the , 2009). to the t areas uatters, in city develop In 18 9 transpo houses Therefo created The fo people coalmin areas s govern (Havz a principa the bas acceler The firs Asma m the city 4.3). T h ment (AK 9 9, the Z o rtation in t and powe re, Zong new econ Figure-4 Sour rm and st of Zong es (GÜR B o that wo ing the d -I Amele l objectiv in. Zongu ated deve t settleme ines in t has grow is develop IŞ, 2009). nguldak c he city (A r plants ha uldak ha v omical dim 4 .2: Zongu ce: [51] an ructure of uldak’ ru r OĞA, 20 rkers settl evelopme Fahammiy e of this a ldak was lopment in nts were f he city (AN n in para ment has oal harbo NONYMO ve steadi e suffered ensions i ldak Port C d Mustafa Zongulda al areas 05). The ed in the c nt of coa e mining ct was to announce early Tur ormed aro ONYMO U llel with th had far-re 84 r (Figure US, 2006 ) ly increase from th n the regio ompariso Ergen, 20 k is shap e supplied city starte oal region lmining a law numb mitigate th d as a pr kish Repu b und the po S, 2006 ) e increasi aching eff -4.2) was . New wa d industria e effects n. n between 07, (Autho d by coa the unde d to grow s [52]. Th reas, whic er 151) ( A is unheal ovince due lic. rt of Zong . The prob ng coal m ects on pla built for shers (coa l producti of rapid Past and r`s own i m l mining d rground w up aroun e first plan h was a NONYM O thy and fa to rapid uldak, an d lem of se ining deve nning dev the hub l), new em vity in Zon urbanizati Present age) evelopme orkforce d the coal was regu rranged i US, 2006 st urbaniz urbanizat Üzülme z ttlement a lopment ( elopment. of coal ployee guldak. on and nt. The of the mining lations n 1921 6 ). The z ation in ion and z , Kozlu, reas in Figure- The iro in the r 2006). connec 1980, t across 2011). (ŞENG Zongul presen the rea develop urbaniz rapid d develop n and stee egion, in This maj tion betwe he popula the region However ÜL et al, S dak’ local t. City dev son that ment. Z z ation facto evelopme ed in the Figu l industrie 1939 and j or industr en coal a tion of Zo (ŞENGÜ , this rap PHERE-E economy elopment coal mine onguldak’ rs, create nt of coal region. re-4.3: D e Source: A s have be 1960 in K ial develo nd iron s nguldak d Ü L et al., S id increa UROPEA has relied can prima rs’ house s urbaniz a s a typica industry i 85 velopmen NONYM O en the fas arabük a n pment ha teel indus oubled th PHERE-E se in po N RESEA on coal m rily addres remain tion proc l coal mini n Zonguld t Planning US, 2006 test growin d Ereğli re s been try in the rough the UROPEA pulation s RCH PRO ining and s coal pro all the tim ess, whe ng city dev ak cause s Map g econom spectively able to s region. Be spreadin N RESEA topped in JECT, 20 1 coal indu duction in e a seco n comb elopment supportiv ical devel (ANONY upport ec tween 19 g of urba RCH PRO the mid 1). stry from Zongulda nd priority ined with (Figure-4 . e industry opment Y MOUS, onomic 9 65 and nization JECT, -1980s past to k. It is in city other 4). The to get As Zon propert urbaniz been m Zongul problem Zongul Climati Zongul climatic summe empiric Zongul Figure-4 guldak c i ies put ob z ation start ade to dak, urba n atic and dak. c Conditio dak is a value of t rs and co al attemp dak. Thes e 4 .4: The Vi e ty is loca stacles in ed to get d construct developm unhealthy n Analysis city that h he city. Zo ld winters t is mad are the b w of Wa s Sourc ted betwe the way eveloped all the s ent has b develop in Zongul as many nguldak h [55]. Pre c e to und asic elem 86 hing Coal e: [53] a n en the se of is deve on flat ter tructural d een conce ment in dak different as a rainy ipitation a erstand t ents of the Areas and d [54] a and m lopment in rain in the evelopme ntrated in the early plant spec spring an nd temper he prevai ecologica Port in Zo ountains, the city. basin. Sin nt on the certain ar stages o ies. This d autumn, ature are ling clima l compone nguldak its topogr This mea ce attemp flat terr eas. This f urbaniz a is based warm and analyzed tic condit nts of the aphical ns that ts have ains of led to a tion in on the humid and an ions in city. Figure- The fig Further that Ju precipit Obviou may be Accord definitio   Pluv Where Values Q 20 < Q 4.5: Ober o ure reveal more, the ly and Aug ation and sly, there bigger to ing to Em n Pulvioth iothermic P = Annu a M = Mea n m = Mea n of Q: < 20 S a < 25 A r 20 4 0 6 0 8 0 100 120 14 0 16 0 18 0 P R E C IP IT A TI O N thermic D s that Octo diagram p ust are th the mea is less su keep usin berger eq ermic coe coefficien l Precipita Maximu m Minimum haran id ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 D R Y   S E A S iagram (Z Source: A ber and N resents te e hottest m n temper nlight avai g more su uation, we fficient (Q t (Q) tion. temperat temperatu Precipit R A I N O N 87 onguldak P for 2010) NONYM O ovember mperature onths in t ature are lable in th nlight for th calculate ) value: ure of the re of the c ation N Y  S E A S O N recipitatio US, 2011 are the ra evaluatio he city. In is 103,1 e city; th e e plant ev d to clima warmest m oldest mo Temperatur D R Y S E A n and Tem iniest mon n in Zong statistica 3 and 13 refore, the apotransp te of Zong onth. nth. 270 275 28 0 28 5 29 0 29 5 300 e Y   S O N prature A ths in Zon uldak an d l terms, th ,62 resp e leaves o iration. udlak wit h ,000 5 ,000 ,000 5 ,000 ,000 5 ,000 ,000 TE M P E R A TU R E (K ) nalysis guldak. shows e mean ctively. f plants below 88 25 < Q < 50 Semi - arid 50 < Q < 90 Sub - humid Q >100 Humid An analysis is conducted into the prevailing climatic conditions for the last 30 years in Zonguldak. The total amount of precipitat ion in Zonguldak is 1244,71 mm. The maximum temperature is 4,98 degrees C° whereas the mi nimum temperature is 22, 54 degrees C°. The calculation shows that Q value is 247,16, which suggests that climatic conditions in Zonguldak can be classified as char acteristics of humid climate. Planning development in the city is one of the important factors in understanding its conditions such as climatic analysis. The following section discusses planning development in Zonguldak from past to pr esent in order to understand the current development in the city. Planning Phases of Zonguldak City The municipality of Zonguldak was founded in 1899 (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The first development plan (imar planı) for the city was prepared for coal mining areas in 1948 (ANONYMOUS, 2006). According to this plan, urban development regulations constituted the arrangement of healthy development in coal mining areas. It was so important that these regulations included definitions of necessary measurements and provisions for the impact of coal mining on the city. In 1964, the Unit of R egional Planning, the Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, prepared a sub-regional planning for Zonguldak on the basis of the Development Law number 1587 (ANONYMOUS, 2006). In the 1970s, the Bank of Provinces ( İller Bankas ı) devised a new development plan for the Municipality of Zonguldak (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The Bank of Provinces incorporated the needs of not only Zonguldak, but also such districts as Kozlu, Kilimli and Catalagzi into this new development plan (ANONYMOUS, 2006). It should be noted that coal production dominated local economy in these places (IŞIN, 2009). In 1971, these four municipal ities got organized as the fi rst example of metropolitan administration in Turkey (KELE Ş, 2002; GÜNDO ĞAN, 2005). The area where the 89 planning was implemented was defined as ZMA, which stands for Zonguldak Metropolitan Areas (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The spatial development plans for ZMA was devised after they were accepted by each municipality council in 1976 (ANONYMOUS, 2006). All these plans came into force and were approved by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing (ANONYMOUS, 2006). After this perio d, there was no development plan that covered all the problems in the city. Nevertheless, plan revisions and local arrangements were made for the solutions to the problems. Although the Squatter Amnesty Law gave title deeds to those who had already settled on governmental areas, the local government did not succeed in providing updates on their development plan in the city. Therefore, the city suffered from the ownership problem in these areas. Development plans were completed by the Organization of Metropolitan Areas in the early 1980s (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The amount of time allocated for preparing development plans was 20 years, and they were completed on time (ANONYMOUS, 2006). During the period, ZMA plans were put into practice but some of the changes became a serious problem for Zonguldak in the meantime. Likewise, t he ZMA became an important industrial region of the country in that period (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Even so, the ZMA has lost importance and undergone a process of collapse over the past 25 years (ANONYMOUS, 2006), Hard coal production has significantly decreased due to the closure of coalfields in the basin. Owing to the closure of the coal mines, the overall decrease in coal output has had a negative effect on the economy in the short term for Zonguldak (ESSA TECHNOOLOGIES LTD., 2006). In the late 1980s, the muni cipalities that participated in the planning phase changed their policy from the unity of municipalities (ANONY MOUS, 2006). Because of several reasons, the ZMA started to suffer from migration from the region to other areas. In the 1990s, Bart ın and Karabük were separated fr om Zonguldak and turned into cities (Figure-4.6). This development c hanged the administration border of Zonguldak and ha Zongul (ANON Ventur e ZBKP w the reg an ana and the With it s in the r this fac Ereğli i reduce directio decisio mining d an effe dak-Kara b YMOUS, of BRL-T as comp ion (SANA lysis of th privatiza t Figure-4 . iron-stee egion. Thi tory. The f s still und using co n of this s n led to a structures ct on the ük-Bart ın 2006). T UMAS-GE leted in 19 LAN, 19 9 e consequ ion of Kara 6: Zongul d l factory, K s city has actory was erway (GÜ al produc trong eco decrease in Zongul econom Regional he State RSAR to 9 97 thank s 9 9; DO ĞRU ences of bük and E ak and Z o S arabük i s a strong e privatize Ü NDOĞAN ed by Zo nomic con in the n dak. 90 ic situatio Developm Planning deal with to the pub , 2004; G the decre rdemir (D nguldak R ource: [5 6 one of the conomic c d in 1995 w , 2005). A nguldak. nection b umber of n of the ent Proje Organiz the proje c lic-private ÜNDO ĞA asing num OĞRU, 20 egions Ad 6 ] most eco onnection hereas th dditionally The decis etween Zo coal mine region. In ct (ZBKP) z ation com t (GÜND O partnersh N, 2005). ber of em 04). ministratio nomically with Zong e privatiz a , private ion mark e nguldak a rs and th the 19 9 was und missioned ĞAN, 200 ip for 10 y The ZBKP ployment n Border important uldak be c tion of the sector dec d a shift nd Karabü e closure 0s, the ertaken Joint 5). The ears in made in TTK places ause of one in ided to in the k. The of coal 91 Figure-4.7: Overview of Zongul dak from Past to Present Source: [51] and Mustafa Ergen, 2007, (Author`s own images) 92 4.2. The SWOT Analysis and Grid Based Modeling (Matrix)- Hierarchical Cluster Method for Zonguldak This section focuses on research question one: “Which planning instrument and process can be used to develop a solution for Turkish cities?”. Through a case study of Zonguldak, this chapter makes an atte mpt to find an appropriate solution in the new methodological approach. Sustaining the city development requires an appropriate analysis and understanding of problem and, more generally, the dynamics of the interrelation among ecological development system, social development system and economic development system (BERKES, COLDING and FOLKE, 2003). Characteristics of abandoned areas support the direction of the framework in that it aims to focus appropriate approaches on the redevelopment of Brownfield sites (BEACHAM, 2008). The approach of the method used in this study has great potential to analyze an extensive field from micro scale to macro scale. The methodological approach to Brownfield problems have significantly shifted from the site specific perception to wider perspective strategies in the context of land management in the thesis (FERBER, 2010). The SWOT analysis is used to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in the study (MASON, 2011). “Humphery (2004), one of the founding fathers of the SWOT analysis, claims that the SWOT analysis is a product of a study conducted at Stanford Research Institute from 1960-1970” (MASON, 2011). The analysis points out that this method is one of the important analysis techniques for economic issues. The present-day SWOT method is the connecting point for analyzing every issue so that it is avail able to other professions (such as landscape architecture, city planning and architecture) using a clear and simple common language in their own perspective [57]. Additionally, it is well-known that design professions are highly connected with each other. For example, macro scale decisions (planning level) must be compatible with micro scale implementations (design applications). Nevertheless, the SWOT analysis does not cover all the issues from macro scale decisions to micro scale implementations in design professions. It is one of the important methods of analyzing macro scale development in cities and in design professions. On the other hand, a grid model is used to analyze micro scale implementations for 93 land use development or current land use. Even so, it is not able to analyze the entire planning and design system from macro scale to micro scale. Each profession has its own set of analyzing techniques for these methods. This study employs mix method for analyzing macro and micro scales in ab andoned areas. Mixed methods also help the use of multiple approaches in answering research question for Brownfield sites (JOHNSON and ONWEGBUZIE, 2004). The grid method has been used in environmental research, and the experience with the method in a number of studies has proven that it is a useful technique for micro scale analysis (KERKHOF, 2004). According to Kuiper (1999), the grid method was structured in the following way for environmental research in his study: Approach of Kuiper (1999) Kuiper`s approach of including environmental resources in methodological process is about how much the quantitative effects of areas are taken into account (SPASH et al., 2005). But this systematic approach does not provide important tools for analyzing Brownfield areas fr om macro scale to micro scale (YENER, 2003). Enrico Land Use Hydrology Soil Vegetation Historical Areas Grid Model and Statistical Analysis Result 94 Feoli 11 et al. (2001) also used the grid method to systematically investigate landscape structure in environmental research field. The data evaluation in the study by Feoli et al. (2001) was organized as follows: Approach of Feoli et al. (2001) The grid method is very flex ible and has no restriction regarding the type of any data in the analysis. In 1976, Golany Gideon tr ied to adapt it in planning studies. His research focused on land use analysis in urban development and he was one of the early researchers who utilized the grid meth od. During his research period, he saw a technological obstacle to efficient scientific analysis for grids in his study. He didn’t have any certain areas of m2 or number for the evaluation criteria, but he used the mark method for evaluating all the information in the grids. His evaluation defined the grids and focused on the uses within the grids. Even so, it was not possible to conduct a detailed analysis. Naturally, he has not established any connection between macro scale and micro scale in planning decisions and method implementation. He considered the following criteria in his studies: 11 Feoli is the second author of this article, but the author of this dissertation carried out the study with Prof. Dr. Enrico FEOLI and learned this method from him in Greece. This is the main reason why the author cited his name and mentioned about the researchers who used this method previously in Environmental Studies. Land Use Slope Aspect Soil Vegetation Grid Model and Statistical Analysis Result 95 Approach of Golany Gideon (1976) • Topography  • Slope  • Soil  • Land Suitibality  • Types of Climatic  • Geology  • Hydrology  • Changing of Land  • Potential of Landscape  • Air Pollution  • Noise Pollution  • Hydrology  • Historical, natural sites  • Distiribution of Plant Species  • Fauna  • Structure of Demography   • Cultural Characteristics  • Groups of Income  • Job Opportunities  • Prices of Land  • Situation of Zonning   • Present Land Use Situation  • Land Suitability  • Housing Market  • Land Market  • Land Owner  • Transportation System  • Closeness of Transportation  • Closeness of City Center  • Closeness of Public Facilities  • Closeness of Refinment Facilities  • Closeness of Energy Facilities  and Possibilities  • Distirubution of Educational Facilities    Physical Environmental Social and Econimical Transportation 96     Golany`s study shows the Grid Model has been used in or adapted by wide planning studies. Planning studies determine the impacts of a proposed action on city development, generally including changes in social, cultural, economic and ecological system (STYNES, 1997). On the other hand, the grid model is a micro- scale concept, and its analysis is dominated by geographical data and characterized by environmental and planning studies (UNGER et al., 2011). These studies make it clear that a combination of macro and micro analysis methods are not available for planning and environmental studies. This study provides a transition from macro scale (planning decision) to micro scale (planning implementation) with the Grid analysis and SWOT analysis. The SWOT analysis particularly defines the general characteristics of Brownfield areas and it is very important for determination of macro scale analysis. This study uses a combination of the Grid model and SWOT analysis as one single method to start analysis from macro scale to micro scale on Brownfield Areas. It can also create a new method and provide a transition for the design professions (landscape architecture, architecture and urban planning). The central approach of design professions such as urban planning and landscape architecture is to conduct studies on the same problems existing in the same areas. Physical Environmental Transportation Social and Economical Grid Model and Mark of the Grids Result 97 (CHRISTENSENL and YA ŞAR, 2007). The approach of design professions must have a similar understanding of the problem in order to provide the same solution. It is a fact that all design professions must use the same data for a solution for problematic areas. This means using the same approaches, exactly the same implementations and projects, and performing the same tasks in design professions. The method (The Grid model and SWOT analysis) used in this study provides a systematic approach to design professions and ensures that the method is suitable for analysis from macro scale to micro scale in Brownfield areas (AAKER, 2001). Limitations of the SWOT Analysis Currently, the SWOT analysis is generally used effectively in urban regeneration approaches as a scientific method within social, economic and ecological context. Although it is an important technique for urban regeneration, it seems to be far from fully analyzing the properties of the areas and unable to provide sufficient information about the field. The SWOT la cks data analysis such as slope, solar-space effect and geological structure for Brownfield redevelopment. It stays too far to define the characteristics of urban regeneration area and remains superficial for analyzing the prevailing conditions in areas. Consequently, it is obvious that the SWOT analysis is not enough to give an idea for the exis ting decision of architectural and environmental design on urban regeneration areas. Limitations of the Grid Method with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis The Grid Method with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis is used generally for environmental studies in an attempt to determine the characteristics of an area. This method is useful for micro scale investigations. Nonetheless, the method fails to capture the broad range of social, cultural and economic data analysis (CONSULTANTS, 2008). This method cannot provide sufficient data analysis in studies of urban regeneration on its own, but it can create a new methodological approach in combination with the SWOT analysis for urban regeneration projects. This deep thinking on the me thod helps complete the SWOT analysis as a creation of new methodological background in the investigation. The method helps to determine current and potential urban regeneration areas and contributes to healthy and 98 sustainable development in cities. The application method of design professions (The SWOT – Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis) The quantitative and qualitative analyses present a holistic approach for urban regeneration areas. In this study, the new methodological approach consists of the SWOT – Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchic al Cluster Analysis. This method is useful not only for urban regeneration areas but also for many planning studies. “ Although the elements defined are common to the Brownfield process, they should not be considered as requirements for all projects” [4]. Depending on the nature of the site, scope of the project, and necessiti es of the areas, only some of these elements may be applied [4]. This study introduces the fundamental elements of quantitative and qualitative approach to research, to help understand the problem and become proficient in the new method [58]. Economic, ecological and social factors have come to the fore in abandoned areas as an important outline for urban regeneration studies. This study strongly emphasizes that the characteri stics of areas are the most important part of the new approach. Current scientific approaches are not able to analyze the characteristics of the areas in potential Brownfield solutions. For urban regeneration studies, the U.K. government used SWOT method in East Wales 12. This study provided guidelines for our study in Zonguldak, Turkey. As a different statement in our investigation, we focus on three headings, namely economic, ecological and social fields for our research area in the SWOT analysis as a qualitative analysis. On the other hand, the Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis is adapted and modified for urban regeneration areas as a quantitative method. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are integrated into this study for evaluating evaluation and finding a solution for urban regeneration areas. A new approach to urban regeneration is to find a proper solution for abandoned areas with the application method of design professions. 12 see the website www.wefo.wales.gov.uk/resource for more information 99 “Geographical data generally appear as part of an existing structure of regions. Yet it is the formulation of regional boundaries that may be a desired outcome of analysis rather than such boundaries being predetermined” (MASSEY, 1978; DUNN and WALKER, 1989; ROBINSON, 1998). From this perspective, cluster analysis can help to determine the boundaries of geographical data and analyze da ta similarities to find a solution approach. This method makes it easy to analyze all geographical data on urban areas. This will help to give a more specific solution through the combination that includes cluster analysis in Brownfield areas. “Cluster analysis is based on correlation matrix, but it generally operates on one in a different form” (ROBINSON, 1998). Cluster analysis is the correlation matrix that determines the correlation between the characteristics of areas regarding a case study, which will help to understand the current problem in Brownfield areas for the best approaches to solutions. The cluster process is usually represented in the correlation matrix with dendrogram, so nam ed because of its branching structure (ROBINSON, 1998). Clustering highly correlat ed pairs of observations takes place in the dendrogram at a level of correlation that is depicted in the original correlation matrix between all the observations (ROBIN SON, 1998). The distance coefficient (d ij ) can be counted in the same branch and close to the bottom. It means that these regions are similar to each other. “Hierachical clustering requires a measure of similarity between groups of data points” (BLEI, 2008). It is used agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis for the data evaluation in this study. According to the Noor et al. (2011), Agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis is described as “clsutering of each observations or objects begins in seperate clusters and the clusters of object or observation that are close together are merged to create one large cluster”. The general formula is given for agglomerative hiearchical cluster as follows (TEKNOMO, 2009; NOOR et al., 2011); dk → (r, s)= αr dk →r+ αs dk →s+ β dr→s+ γ Agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis is used with complete linkage method for 100 creating cluster from available data. Complete linka ge method is defined as “The distance two clusters is based on the points each clusters that are furthest part” [59]. The general formula and description are as follows [59]; DKL= max d (x i, x j ) i€CK j€CL The SWOT analysis addresses the current st ate of physical, economic, social and environmental factors in city development for Zonguldak. The Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis considers the factors in the characteristics of areas in Brownfield areas. The quantitative and qualitative analyses describe various characters and features of the areas. This study has the potential to determine an appropriate solution for the abandoned problem in other Turkish cities. The cent ral approach of this study is to find an accurate solution for abandoned sites in cities. This new methodological approach in this study can be described through the headings presented below (Figures-4.8); Figure-4.8: Methodological Flow Chart for the Dissertation METHODOL OGICAL  A P P R O A C H  TO  T H E  BROWNFIELD  A R E A S  IN  THE  S T U D Y   SWOT  A N A L Y S I S   GRID BASED MODEL WITH CLUSTER ANALYSIS ANALYSIS OF THE BROWNFIELD AREAS HYPOTHESIS 101 Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009 Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) The purpose of the mixed method analysis is to identify an appropriate solution approach for Brownfield redevelopment. A connection is developed among economic, ecological, social and geological issues in an attempt to understand the problems in Brownfield areas in a scientific manner. ECOLOGICAL SWOT The scenery of the region is primarily the Mountains in the Black Sea Coast that extend from the east to the west and arable plains, valleys and streams (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The mountains in the Western Black Sea Region lie parallel with the coast (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The sout hern part of the mountain system has a three-sequence structure (ANONYMOUS , 2006). The first sequence rises until 1000 m, under which coal beds are available (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The second sequence rises as high as 1500 meters (ANONYMOUS, 2006). T he height of third sequence is approximately 2000 mete rs (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Panay ır Hill of northern Safranbolu, Bacakl ıkaya Hill of Ere ğli and Keltepe Hill of southwestern Karabük are the highest point s in the region (ANONYMO US, 2006). 67% percent of the region is hilly, whose slope is generally more than 20% (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The remaining other 33% of the region has a slope of less than 20% where areas are suitable for urbanization and industrial development (ANONYMOUS, 2006). With a ECONOMIC   ANALYSIS   ECOLOGIC   ANALYSIS S O C I A L    ANALYSIS A R E A S  OF   CHARACTERISTIC CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES  FOR ACTION MODEL TO THE TURKISH CITIES BROWNFIELD AREAS DESIGN DECISION MODEL 102 slope of 0-10%, Ere ğli, Bartın and Safranbolu are the best places for settlement around Zonguldak (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The region has two major water basins (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The Sakarya Basin covers southern Bolu whereas the Kız ılırmak Basin covers nort hern Bolu, central and southern Zonguldak and middle and s outhern Kastamonu in the region (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Bolu has two river basins (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The Efteni basin is a small one located entirely within the boundaries of Düzce (ANONY MOUS, 2006). The Sakarya and Filyos river basins flow into the sea from the surrounding provinces (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The River Filyos has three main streams, namely Büyüksu, Mudurnu and Ulusu (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Büyüksu comes from Lake Abant and flows towards the north combined with the Creek Mengen (ANO YMOUS, 2006). When the Creek Mengen enters Zonguldak, it is called the Creek Devrek and joins with the Creek Filyos in southern Çaycuma (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Ulusu starts from Mountain Köro ğlu and flows towards the northeast (ANONYMOUS, 2006). It flows from southern Çank ırı to Zonguldak, where it is called the Creek Gerede (ANONYMOUS, 2006). T he Creek Ulusu reaches the Black Sea, where it is called the Creek Filyos (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The main streams of the Sakarya Basin are Mudurnu, Alada ğ, Göynük and Çatak (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The Creeks Mudurnu and Çatak converge into the Stream Sakarya (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The Creek Alada ğ, on the other hand, converges into the Sarıyer Dam (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The River Filyos is named after the merger of the Creeks Yeni ce and Devrek in Zonguldak’s district of Tefen (ANONYMOUS , 2006). The removal or destruction of plant species results in a disrupted balance between soil and water in the region. The River Filyos has a few tributaries at stagnant times, but after the rain there becomes a flood (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The flood starts from Tefen in the Filyos Valley 103 (ANONYMOUS, 2006). It covers approxim ately 3% of the whole Zonguldak (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Most of the lakes in the Western Black Sea are found in Bolu, which is near to Zonguldak (ANONYMOUS, 2006). These lakes are small but have touristic value. The name of the lakes are as follows: Abant Lake, Ça ğa Lake, Çubuk Lake, Kara Lake, Efteni Lake, Sunnet Lake and Seven Lakes (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Forests are the dominant vegetation in the Western Black Sea. The richest forests cover this part of the country. Out of 7000 plant species in Turkey, more than half exist in this region (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Many species of plant are found at a height of 1900 to 2000 m. (ANONYMO US, 2006). Karadere, Seben and Alada ğ Forests require urgent conversation for the flora and vegetation in the region (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The Western Black Sea region has the least precipitation in the Black Sea region (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Generally , the precipitation is ex perienced most often in summer and autumn in the region (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The average annual precipitation is between 700-1000 mm (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The average annual temperature is similar to that of the Eastern Black Sea region. Winters are very cold, whereas summers are very hot (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Strengths ¾ Zonguldak has major attraction areas ar ound it that can be used for visitors with its natural background ¾ Strong ecological features ¾ Strong clean and green image ¾ Endemic flora and fauna for the ecological regulations ¾ Zonguldak could be use the natural areas for the new development approaches like ecotourism Weakness ¾ Derelict areas affected environment by land contamination ¾ Derelict areas gave a bad image to the urban environment ¾ Lack of rethinking ecological approaches for derelict areas 104 Opportunities ¾ Focus on high value ecological features with growing potential ¾ Redevelopment and regaining derelict areas with natural features ¾ Development of high quality environment in sustainable ways Threats ¾ Damaging the environment by having wrong decisions for the new development ¾ Lacking of natural thinking for the solution ¾ Lacking of sustainable approac hes to the derelict areas ¾ Lacking of environmental management for regaining derelict areas Regarding Brownfield approaches, any implementation requires a broad and deep understanding of the current environmental situation. Conducting an environmental potential is the most commonly used process that creates the solution options in successful approaches to Brownfield areas. An environmental potential helps to develop an internal and external solution a pproach to Brownfield areas. The results of this analysis can be used to help 1- provide fundamental approaches to the environmental potential 2- gather data for potential solutions 3- ensure effective use of Brownfield areas within the solution. As a result, Zonguldak has strong solutions in terms of environmental potential for Brownfield areas regarding the ecological SWOT. ECONOMIC SWOT The economy of Zonguldak depends main ly on the TTK. The TTK gradually reduced levels of employment in the last two decades. Accordingly, the problem of unemployment in Zonguldak has increased significantly. The TTK decided to get involved in downsizing just a fter the 1994 crisis, but rates of Gross National Product (GNP) increased in 1997 (ANONYMOUS, 2006) . Besides, industrial sector (Ereğli enjoys strong industrial sector because of its steel-iron factory, which is operated by the government) also increased 368% in 1997(ANONYMOUS, 2006). Although the TTK and Erdemir are nationwide firms and have high income of GNP in Zonguldak, GNP doesn’t really reflect the standards of living in the region (ANONYMOUS, 2006). A look 63% i n sector, GNP a sectors For ins decrea 20.3% (ANON The ag (ANON investm Region Zongul TTK an are not sector below t is rank sector follows Çatala ğ Figure at the sec terms of which is r nd agricult are obse tance, ag sed from GNP; a YMOUS, 2 riculture YMOUS, ent (ANO (ANONY M dak ( ANO d the iron enough to (ANONY M he Turkis h k ed secon (ANONY M : 35% for z ı and 0.9 -4.9: Divis tors in Zo GNP va anked se c ure sector rved to ha riculture s 12.1% to nd servi 006). sector in 2006). I n NYMOU S OUS, 20 NYMOUS , -Steel fac provide a OUS, 20 average d in terms OUS, 200 the TTK, 9 % for SE K 8% 20% ion of Zon S nguldak r lues (ANO ond with ranked f o ve underg ector decr 9.2% G N ces secto Zonguldak 2000, h , 2006). E 06). Lab o 2006). T tory in Ere wide rang 06). Bet w or Black S of emplo 6). The i n 13% for A Paper F 9% 105 guldak Cit y ource: [5 6 eveals tha NYMOU S 20% GN P urth with one certa eased fro P; indus t r decrea k was be owever, t ven so, it r force in he main ec ğli (ANON e of empl een 198 0 ea Region yment, b dustrial ra Erdemir, 1 actory in 6 GNP by 6 ] t services , 2006). , mining s 8% GNP ( in change m 11.8% rial sector sed from low the T he sector was still ra the sector onomic d YMOUS, oyment op and 200 . By GNP eing seco te of emp .1% for t h Çaycuma 3% Economic sector is It is follow ector rank ANONY M s between to 8% G N increase 50.4% urkish a v increase nked las t is ranke d evelopmen 2006). N e portunities 0, Zongul values, th nd only to loyment in e Therma (ANONY M Services Se Agriculture Industry Mining Sector   ranked fi ed by in k ed third w OUS, 200 1988 an d P; minin g d from 18 to 63 % erage unt d through in the Bla first with t is based vertheless for the in dak was e industria the agri Zongulda l Power P OUS, 200 ctor rst with dustrial ith 9% 6). The 2000. sector 8 .6% to % GNP il 1990 public ck Sea 59% in on the , these dustrial still not l sector cultural k is as lant in 6). In term betwee serves Additio (ANON with 6 3 In Zong 59% is importa constitu importa Clearly Coal m been a s of emplo n 1980 a as a ce nally, the YMOUS, % GNP in uldak, 41 comprised nce in Zo tes the m ntly 85% this show ining has ble to rece yment, se nd 2000 nter of h TTK crea 2006). Wi t the city (A Figure-4. % of the e of worke nguldak, w ajority o f of the wor s that Zo been of g ive any inv 59% rvices sec (ANONY M ealth serv tes and h respect NONYM O 10: Econo Sources: A mployme rs (ANONY hich can the mem kers in th e nguldak e reat impor estments 2 106 tor in Zong OUS, 20 ices for supports to these f US, 2006 mic Sector NONYM O nt is comp Y MOUS, 2 be explai n bers of t city are p conomy is tance for over the y 6% 15% uldak wa s 06). On t other citie a larger s acts, serv ). s of Zong US, 2002 rised of o 002). The ed by the he sector ublic work highly de many yea ears. Se Ind Ag Ra below the he other s (ANON ervices s ices secto uldak City fficers, wh mining se fact that . The ci k ers (ANO pendent o rs in the c rvices Secto ustry riculture and ising Turkish a hand, Zon YMOUS, ector in t r was rank ile the rem ctor still ha the worki n ty ensure NYMOUS n mining ity, but it r Stock verage guldak 2006). he city k ed first aining s great g class s more , 2006). sector. has not 107 Figure-4.11: Economic Sector s of Zonguldak City Center Source: ANONYMOUS, 2002 A look at the sector distri bution in the city center indicates that 68% of the employment is provided by the services sector; 31% by the industrial sector; and 1% by the agriculture sector (ANONYMOUS, 2002). When the mining sector declined in the city, it was obvious that the city center could not provide any other option for economic development. As can be concluded from the table, the agriculture sector is the second biggest in Zonguldak, but the ci ty is geographically located on a hilly area. For that reason, the agriculture sector cannot prove to be the solution for the current problem. The economic and demographic conditions in Zonguldak include the shrinking problem, which has an influence on the development of the city. Zonguldak also need to consider that condition as an advantage within a new economic option. But currently, the phenomenon of shrinking ha s general symptoms such as decreased population and shut-down industries in the city. Furthermore, the situation leads to decreased production in industrial areas. The TTK is the most important economic component in Zonguldak. Unfortunately, this economic benefit started to lose its crucial effect on the city. The TTK has decreased the number of its employees, which, in turn, has had an effect on coal production. The annual coal production growth rate has dropped dramatically in recent years (Figure-4.12) and Zonguldak has started to suffer from shrinking problem. F From t depend figure, in Zon disadva as follo Streng ¾ S ¾ Z a ¾ Z ¾ Z ¾ Weakn ¾ ¾ Z ¾ Z ¾ igure-4.1 2 he figures ing on de which mig guldak. T ntages to ws; ths trong coa onguldak nd is use onguldak onguldak new econo Large num ess High levels onguldak onguldak Concentra 5 1.0 1.5 0 2.00 2.5 0 P R O D U C TI O N : Turkish H , it is app creased c ht mean t his situat city devel l mining b k is located ful shore a k open to t k has a reg mic back g ber of ser of unemp k needs loc k needs to tion of eco 0 5 00.000 00.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2 ard Coal Source: A arent that oal produ hat demog ion can p opment, w ackgroun d in Black s a tourist he new de eneration round vice secto loyment al employ attract to e nomic app 001 200 108 Foundatio NONYM O the city ction. The raphic an rovide no hich can b Sea whic ic attractiv velopmen area as a r for the de ment oppo conomic i roach for 2 2003 YEARS n Product US, 2007 has been re is a cle d econom t only so e try to de h is conj u e t approach potential velopmen rtunities nvestment the aband 2004 ion from 20 shrinking arly defin ic conditio me adva fined in th nction of t and inves of develo t potential oned area 2005 01 to 200 ever sinc ed pattern ns are wo ntages b e SWOT a he transp tment pment pla 5 e 2001 in the rsening ut also nalysis ortation ce with 109 ¾ Coal mining is the one of the industry, not having the others Opportunities ¾ Potential of redevelopment derelict areas for economic use ¾ Attraction to the investment on the redevelopment areas ¾ Use of potential to the natural areas for the economic facilities Threats ¾ Declining areas cause adverse problem on the economic site like losing tax ¾ Sustain of declining urban economy day to day ¾ In a globalization development competiti on with the other cities in an economic background The rapid change in economic growth is an unanticipated result in the city; it is the reason why the city has had to face unexp ected challenges. Brownfield areas have brought about the lowest incomes and created unemployment in the city. Migration and declining economy shows that this drastic development in Zonguldak can have a long term impact on city development. It should be noted that shrinking city problem has a number of negative impacts on urban development. Therefore, Brownfield areas in Zonguldak need a solution in global economic development. SOCIAL SWOT The table presents the demographic distribution in the center of Zonguldak and its districts. According to the table, Ereğli has the highest population with 159,808 people, only second to the center of Zonguldak, whereas Gökçebey has the lowest population with 25,588 people (Table-4.1). Table-4.1: Zonguldak City 1990-2 000 Population Growth Rate 1990* 2000 Annual Population Growth (%) District Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Merkez 249610 117975 131635 218722 104276 114146 -6.01 6.07 -13.51 110 Alaplı 41267 12105 89283 44578 18487 81951 -13.34 -12.34 -14.25 Çaycuma 105586 16303 89283 100685 18734 81951 7.72 42.33 -11.12 Devrek 79028 16442 62586 66518 21360 45158 -4.75 13.90 -8.57 Ereğli 152710 66859 85851 159808 79486 80322 -17.23 26.16 -32.63 Gökçebey 25538 5862 19676 25588 7939 17649 4.54 17.29 -6.66 TOTAL 653739 235546 418193 615899 250282 365317 0.20 30.32 -10.87 Source: ANONYMOUS, 2002 Table 4.1 shows that the highest annual populat ion growth rate is in Çaycuma with 7, 7% whereas the lowe st one is in Ereğli with -17, 2%. According to the General Population Census taken in 2000, the population of Zonguldak is 615,599. While 250,282 live in urban areas, the remaining 365,317 li ve in rural areas. Total population growth rate of the city center is -6.01%. A look at the population of Zonguldak (between 1990 and 2000) suggests that Çaycuma has the highest urban population rate of all the districts whereas Alaplı has the lowest urban population rate. Ereğli has the lowest rural population growth rate with -32.63% while Gökçebey has the highest one with -6.66% (Table-4.1). Figure-4.13: Annual Population Gr owth Rate of Zonguldak (%) Source: ANONYMOUS, 2002 As can rural a populat Figure Genera higher is caus current disadva Streng ¾ S ¾ S ¾ g ¾ S Weakn ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ 9 % 3% 7 ZONG DIVIS be seen reas are ion growth -4.14: Zo n lly, the p level than ed by un social si ntages of ths trong hist trong cult Large num lobal citie trong cult ess Lack of lo c Migration t Derelict ar Lack of al t 32 42% % 7% ULDAK C ION of UR from the f 0,067% rate of Zo guldak Ci opulation rural area employme tuation in the proble orical heri ural life st ber of po s ural conne al product rends affe eas pointe ernative e % ITY DISTR BAN POPU igure, ann and -1,35 nguldak i ty Districts Source: A of Zongul s, but the nt. The S the case m to Zong tage for m yle tential cu ction in u ion for the cted nega d out a so mploymen Ereğli Merkez Devrek Gökçebey Çaycuma Alaplı ICTS LATION 111 ual popula 5 1% res p s -0,601% Division o NONYM O dak has b population WOT an study, w uldak. ining deve ltural heri rban struct cultural p tively the u cial cohes t opportun tion growt ectively in (ANONY M f Urban an US, 2002 een incre is still mig alysis has hich desc lopment tage for th ures in ne romotion rban deve ion proble ities for the 32% 12% ZONGULD DIVIS P h rates in Zonguld OUS, 200 d Rural P asing in u rating to o been int ribes the e compe ighborhoo lopment m public 5% 22% 22% AK CITY D ION of RU OPULATIO urban are ak. The 2). opulation rban area ther cities roduced i advantag te with th d planning 7% Gö k Ereğ Alap Ça y Mer Dev ISTRICTS RAL N as and annual (2000) s at a , which nto the es and e other k çebey li lı cuma kez rek 112 Opportunities ¾ Provide a maximization of the benefit fo r the tourist attraction on the area ¾ Regaining and reuse to the derelict areas for the public ¾ Create employment opportunities for the local public profit ¾ Focus on cultural background in a global competition factors Threats ¾ Declining areas become a problem for the social differences ¾ Declining areas become inactivity areas for the social movement ¾ Migration is changed to the social character the urban development The first approach to the analysis is to determine how the city is currently affected in the social dimension. The migration has become one of the most important problems in Zonguldak. Even so, the city has many options to create employment opportunities for its people. Especially, Zonguldak has historical heritage in coal mining areas that can help to reveal job opportunities for its people in city development. Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Zonguldak is characterized by the economic potential of coal mining. This is reflected by many types of economic and social movement in Zonguldak. In order to use different factors, influences and their effects on coal mining areas, scientific studies need to determine powerful methods and tools. Different methods of investigation for data analysis are based on matrices. Each of these matrices is used for defining all the areas in Zonguldak. In this case, a comparison and test will be conducted on the relation between matrices. The purpose of this study is to find a proper solution for Brownfield areas in Turkish cities. An analysis of economic, geographical, ecological and social conditions provides a characterization of Brownfield areas. The present study displays solutions for Brownfield areas in Turkey and a new potential solution for abandoned sites. In this investigation, the Grid Based Modeling with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis uses 113 factors of slope, aspect, geology and land use. Generally, the topography of Zonguldak is composed of hilly areas, wh ich results in a planning problem for settlement and development planning problem in the city. For this reason, slope is one of the important research elements for defining solutions for Brownfield areas. Table-4.2: Analysis of High Zones in Zonguldak City Center HEIGHT (m) AREA(ha) RATE(%) 0-10 93.03 3.88 10-20 88.63 3.69 20-50 307.47 12.81 50-100 533.93 22.25 100-200 820.03 34.17 200-300 308.15 12.84 300-400 148.45 6.19 400-500 99.11 4.13 500+ 0.83 0.03 TOTAL 2399.62 100.00 Source: ANONYMOUS, 2006 Many slope areas are decidedly inferior places to settle down (MARSH, 1998). Many communities recognize this and require information on slopes to help guide development decisions such as gently sloping sites are usually necessary for industrial and commercial buildings (MARSH, 1998). The topography is one of the important elements for land use and for further development options. The topography of Zonguldak is one of the obstacles to ne w development options in the city. The reason is that Zonguldak is m ountainous and hilly (Figure-4.15), which cannot possibly allow for settlements in the city. A look has a h 100 an analysi II), whic “The an itself is unders factor i influenc red and part of designe develop at the hig eight of 5 d 200 m, t s, the slop h helps id gle forme called su tand topog n heating i e on des red-like c topograph d as gree ment opti Figure-4 h points in 5 09 m. In t he zone w e map is entify suita d between n angle” raphic ad n abandon ign approa olors des y is not u n areas a on. 4 .15: 3D Vi Source: A the cente he city, ar ith the hig reclassifie ble devel sunlight a (MARSH, vantage fo ed sites. T ches and cribe the seful area nd recrea 114 ew of Zong NONYM O r of Zong eas are m hest rate a d as 0-15 opment op pproachin 1998). A n r the des he sun a solutions northern to for archi tional opp uldak To p US, 2006 uldak su g ost comm pproxima t %, 15-30 % tions for th g the eart analysis ign approa ngle depen . The map pography tectural de ortunities w ography gests that only conc ely 34%- ( % and ove e whole t h`s surfac of sun an ch. Aspec ding on to (Figure-4 . As we k n sign. The ithin the the highe entrated b Table-4.2 r 30% (A p he city. e and the gle could t is an im pography 4 .16) reve ow, the n se areas framework st area etween ). In the pendix- surface help to portant has an als that orthern may be k of the Aspect option of Zong settlem suitable numbe East an (Appen The top the oth located Zongul option areas c approa is one of how to use uldak is l ent (ANO settleme r 7 refers d West w dix-III). ography er obstacle on flat te dak (Figu for new d an provid ches in the Figu the impo sunlight ocated in NYMOUS , nt areas. N to the Nor here sunl of Zonguld s in aban rrains alth re-4.17). T evelopme e new dev city. re-4.16: A Source: A rtant elem for design the north 2006). A umber 8 th, Northe ight is mo ak is not doned are ough som his dense nt in the elopment 115 spect of Z NONYM O ents in B ing urban and north n aspect m refers to t ast and N re favorab favorable as of Zong e of them settleme city cente options a onguldak US, 2006 rownfield Brownfield west, whic ap is als he South, orthwest; le when c for settlem uldak. Th are eve nt develo r. From th nd new dy City areas, w areas. Ap h is poss o reclassi Southeas and numb ompared t ent. Aspe e current d n settled pment ca is perspe namics fo hich can g proximat e ibly not us fied to de t and Sout er 4 refer s o the othe ct is also welling ar on hilly pl nnot provi ctive, aba r further p ive an ly 30% eful for termine hwest,; to the r parts one of eas are aces in de any ndoned lanning Geolog solution Geotec Geolog which a center Affairs as follo ¾ This fo belongs compos black c The fo center. ¾ The se period 13 Transla Bilgisayar Fig y can giv s and ho hnical E ical-Geop re threate of Zonguld (Appendix ws; Yılanlı For rmation is to the ed of silts olors, lam rmation co Formation cond basic that is cal tion from An İnşaat ve Tic ure-4.17: C e an idea w to recon ngineering hysical-Ge ned by ea ak. The p x -IV). Acco mation (DC the oldest Middle D tone and inated mid vers the of Alacaağ unit in th led the Al onymous, 20 aret Ltd. Şti., urrent Sit Source: A about h struct the Ltd. C otechnica rthquake s lan was a rding to th y) unit cove evonian-L nodular lim -thick lim neighborh zı (Ca) e study ar acaağ z ı fo 06, “Zonguld a Ankara 116 uation of S NONYM O ow to app se areas o.13 prep l survey fo and all o pproved b is report, t ring the w ower Ca estone w estone lay oods Asm ea is the A rmation. M k Belediyesi ettlement US, 2006 roach Bro based on ared Re r an area ther natur y the Gen he geogra hole study rboniferou hereas th er, dolom a, Birlik lacaağz ı F udstone Genel Yakla ş in Zongul wnfield a geologica constructio of approx al hazard s eral Direc phy of Zon area. The s period. e top is co ite limesto and Çay d ormation and sands ım Raporu”, dak reas in te l condition n Plan ximately 2 and risk s torate of D guldak is Y ılanlı fo The bot mposed o ne and do amar in t of the Nam tone crea Modül Planla rms of s. ARE Basics 500 ha in the isaster defined rmation tom is f gray- lomite. he city uriyen ted this ma Harita 117 formation. This formation is found in the neighborhoods Baştarla, Asma, Bağlık, Birlik, Çaydamar, Ç ınartepe, Dilaver, İnağz ı, Karaelmas and Tepebaşı. ¾ Kozlu Formation (Cko) In the wide research area, the third basic unit is called the old Kozlu formation of Westphalia. The Kozlu formation is the mo st important carboniferous unit and composed of carbonated mica sandstone, medium-coarse grained stone, pebbly stone, massive and horizontal of stratum conglomerate, mudstone with rich organic matter and veins of coal. This formation is found in the neighborhoods Asma, Birlik, Bağlı, Bahçelievler, Ba ştarla, Çaydamar, Dilaver, İnağz ı, İncivez, Karaelmas, Mithatpaşa, Meşrutiyet, On Temmuz, Tepeba şı, Terakki and Yeni. ¾ Karadon Formation (Cka) A review of the wide areas, suggests that the fourth basic unit is Westphalia of the old Karadon formation. The formation is composed of conglomerate, sandstone, clay stone and diatomite. The formation is found in the neighborhoods Bahçelievler, Birlik, Dilaver, İnağz ı, İncivez, On Temmuz and Terakki. ¾ İnaltı Formation (JKi) In the area which is parallel with the coast is the fifth basic unit- the old İnalti formation from the Upper Jura-Lower Cretac eous period. Generally, the unit consists of carbonate platforms that are composed of beige, white, gray color, medium-thick layer, limestone. The unit is massive and dolomite. This formation is found in the neighborhoods Bahçelievler, İnağ z ı, İncivez, Me şruitiyet, Tepebaşı, Yayla, Yeni and Ye şil. ¾ Member İnciğez (JKii) The Inalti formation of fragment rocks is called as a member of İnciğez. This unit is composed of conglomerate, pebbly sandstone, sandstone, siltstone and mudstone. These fragments contain carbonate, for ex ample, gravel, grain and cement, which stand out with their red color. Fragments of conglomerate are derived entirely from the bottom of the İnaltı formation. This unit is found in the neighborhoods Birlik, Bahçelievler, Tepeba şı, Yayla. 118 ¾ Kilimli Formation (Kk) In the area which is parallel with the coast is the sixth basic unit- the old Kilimli formation from the Bottom Cretaceous period. The formation is composed of sandy limestone, sandstone, siltstone, claystone, argillaceous limestone and marl. The formation has three members. The first one, Velibey, consists of yellow quartz sandstone. The second one, Sapca, consists of glokoni sandstone, argillaceous limestone. The third one consists of marl. The formation is found in the neighborhoods Birlik, İnağz ı and Terakki. The sandstone layers of the Kilimli Formation around the neighborhood Birlik are cracked and very steep. ¾ Alluvium (Qal) The investigation area is characterized by alluvium sedimentary as a first cover unit. This sedimentary is located along two major rivers that discharge into the sea from the port of Zonguldak. Moreover , it is common to observe alluvium sediments in all small creeks discharging in to the north of the sea and small flat areas on mountainous areas where they can encounter alluvium sedimentary. This unit is composed of coarse-grained gravel, sand and clay. Alluvium sediments are quiet tall and graded in some places whereas they are combined with slope rubbles in others. Alluvium sediments are found in the neighborhoods Asma, Birlik, Bahçelievler, Çaydamar, Ç ınartepe, İncivez, Karaelmas, Me şrutiyet, Mithatpaşa, On Temmuz, Tepebaşı, Terakki, Yayla, Yeni, and Ye şil. ¾ Hillside Rubble (Qym) The investigation area is very high due to the topographical structure which has accumulated skirt cut on the hillside rubbl e. Generally, hillside rubble is commonly observed on the Kozlu and Alacaa ğz ı formation skirt cut. This unit is composed of coarse and square gravel. Alluvium transition displays vertical and horizontal direction in some places. Hillside rubble is found in the neighborhoods Asma and Ç ınartepe. ¾ Beach Sedimentations (Qp) The investigation area, especially the port of Zonguldak and eastern border, includes beach sediments. This unit is composed of clean slim-grained sand silts. The unit is very loose and saturated. Beach sediments are found in the neighborhoods İnağz ı, 119 Yayla and Ye şil. ¾ Filling (Qd) Filling material is found in the investigation area, narrow area in the north-west corner and the environs of the port of Zonguldak . Filling units are found in the neighborhoods Bahçelievler, İncivez and Terakki. Land use helps to understand surrounding Brownfield areas and how to approach these areas within the framework of soluti ons. It is known that these areas have a negative influence on land use and surrounding land use conditions. Solutions for Brownfield areas need to help integration of land use between Brownfield areas and surrounding Brownfield areas (Appendix-V). The data obtai ned through the matrices spread over areas of 10 ha and help to determine the state of the abandoned areas and the characteristics of the whole city. As a result, all areas in the Grid Based Model gave 41 grids in the investigation fo r the whole area. One reason for choosing grids with this measurement is that investigation covers a wide area. The second reason is that no exactly meaningful results can be obtained through grids with higher or lower values. The procedures for data preparation are as follows: Attribute tables are arranged by the ArcGIS, which provides a characterizati on of the investigation area in terms of slope, aspect, geology and land use. Afterwards, a new attribute table is arranged through DBF file for the dataset preparation. Finally, the DBF file is opened in EXCEL and the percentage of all the areas is calculated. All the data are collected in one matrix in order for the resu lts to be analyzed (Appendix-VI) In this study, vector data was used for implementing the method. ArcGIS software helped to develop and to simulate our results to make predictions and characterize the investigation area. All these steps can help to develop our analysis for the current Brownfield problem areas and all other areas. The methodology uses the creation of matrices, which could give an appropriate evaluation for the characterization of the area (Figure-4.18). A key function of the 120 matrix is to create a new concept of cont ext and mission for the characterization of the investigation area. Figure-4.18: Flow Charts of Data Analysis for the Grid Based Modeling with Cluster Analysis Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009 (Author`s own construct) The purpose of the methodological approach is mainly to enable GIS and MATEDIT to achieve a solution for Brownfield areas such as an understanding of the current situation in the research area. The data analysis in GIS and Matedit should take spatial construction and statistical analysis factors into consideration for Brownfield areas. This concept of the quantitative method is clearly explained by the present study on abandoned areas. The methodology is started with Normalization analysis in advance to eliminate redundant variables in database. Normalization is defined as “Normalization is a process of reducing redundancies of data in a database” (PLEW and STEPHENS, 2003). The size of the matrices helps to determine the characteristics of Brownfield areas. The Matedit implementation follows the following steps; ¾ Normalize all the matrices from (0, 1) by row. ¾ Calculate similarity; distance to column. ¾ Creation of the dendrogram and determination of clusters. S L O P E LAND  U S E   A S P E C T GE OLO GY   STATIS TICAL   A N A L Y S I S  W I T H   MAT EDIT   FO R  C L S U T E R   A N A L Y S I S   FORMED  OF   MAT RICES  W I T H   GIS   121 ¾ Analysis of regrouping the matrix option depending on t he similarity matrix for the average of ignorance elements on the diagonal. ¾ The similarity matrix does not give significant analysis option and does not give wide range of analysis option. ¾ The columns of the matrix are not regrouped depending on analysis results. ¾ A cluster analysis between variables and assessment. The similarity ratio among the factors can be observed from the following table (Table-4.3). The table pres ents a degree of belonging, and the colored cells can suggest where each group belongs. It can be inferred from the table that the classification is a very decent one, for only 8 out of 41 outliers were evident. Table-4.3: Variables Similarity Ratio Gro up  o n  C o l u m n  m a t rix   " D I S T "     1  <=  Gro u p   2  <=  Gro u p   3  <=  Gro u p   4  <=  Gro u p     5  <=  Gro u p 1  4,21776482 4,009437848 2,544362677 1,272962469   2,757201161 2  1,783421727 3,527692488 1,962096359 2,726034895   3,433440606 3  0,962815054 1,865776865 1,231074219 2,548447938   1,8627086 4  2,759111987 6,564242894 3,204291043 0,841968313   2,738053766 5  3,462004879 7,903863971 3,523606673 1,470917241   3,459950002 6  1,744952276 3,82286041 1,931476239 2,369405783   4,782763245 7  1,136451876 2,307113628 1,575192279 2,364992868   2,092548796 8  3,029050418 6,277620924 4,032051366 0,761810571   2,463912078 9  3,725602531 7,16123215 3,169584049 1,598136349   3,957511699 10  1,543841811 2,84875053 1,78752014 2,727603279   3,692740465 11  0,836250349 1,887200031 1,251048457 2,647254481   2,840543867 12  1,351026842 2,638112167 1,734284422 2,420471558   2,761777702 13  3,008784472 4,428935256 5,516636502 0,861306252   2,090227762 14  3,252810205 4,740110609 4,136946742 1,779683874   4,968363745 15  1,691504506 2,570235122 1,85222403 1,956188876   4,491556779 122 16  1,854362032 4,761544555 2,116527174 1,842278575   4,862284674 17  1,980795765 3,924420183 2,361464182 2,306746272   5,115226071 18  1,85786839 3,523959204 2,221106053 1,542973075   4,395553664 19  2,496636146 3,823869372 4,662366054 1,300631804   2,481581616 20  4,556469476 5,456944595 5,643211939 1,215721713   3,422316958 21  2,330396267 4,065692027 2,281431315 1,621279629   4,12189431 22  3,018506209 6,61998256 3,952087851 1,577979245   4,19339225 23  2,69344385 5,850846853 2,960918299 2,020261633   4,430563452 24  1,764324261 3,658477952 2,175182146 2,027389637   4,730361248 25  3,19712925 4,782828067 5,415402048 1,105154252   2,257417859 26  3,39201925 5,694050412 5,070188812 1,615895305   3,115150482 27  2,782160842 4,011542939 3,237436723 1,237814316   4,009717395 28  3,226783564 7,312463233 4,000130956 1,749280122   4,249381951 29  3,10946899 5,369519037 2,986618461 1,436883204   2,845156005 30  2,367346862 4,031974516 4,892299377 1,342671896   3,262989395 31  3,546325722 4,953618631 5,289129412 1,48848412   3,821970509 32  5,255796277 4,981746187 3,797692296 1,040833271   2,885313803 33  5,005976256 4,902457993 4,251405773 1,114074689   2,569801968 34  5,121742505 4,778104021 3,701076919 1,35460821   3,115506235 35  2,795258934 4,124389604 4,773660881 0,611350534   1,862140021 36  4,63721263 4,245363536 3,709768212 0,908280374   2,410691005 37  4,751237102 4,417022283 3,012710677 0,990327801   2,871211196 38  3,389617713 6,816245719 3,308679577 1,065260553   2,503967529 39  5,028065135 6,012494077 4,342953558 0,932720845   2,649449176 40  2,638492045 6,881300698 2,91346947 1,409945687   2,341500104 41  2,294543761 5,813336555 3,245172708 1,142202793   1,895454165 Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) 123 According to the table, there is a high belonging for cluster groups and there are specific and exact grid ID’s. Nevertheless, th is is not the case for the fourth group, for it is not dominant and has two outliers which are in overall assessment. On the other hand, the first, second and third groups have many outliers which are related to each other. In this case, the analysis suggests that these three groups have strong relations with each other. A look at the probability matrix table reveal s that the first and second groups are very close to each other and, according to the results of the similarity analysis, this is the case for the third group (Table-4.4). The f ourth group is totally different from and has no relation with the other groups. This shows that the analysis is based on a proper evaluation. The fifth group has a high similarity with the first, second and third groups,. Even so, it is slightly different from the other groups. Table-4.4: Probability Matrix P r o b a bility  m a trix   1  2 3 4 5  1  0  0,0029 0 0,9977 0,1731   2  0,0029 0 0 1 0,2253   3  0  0 0 1 0,0474   4  0,9977 1 1 0 1  5  0,1731 0,2253 0,0474 1 0  Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) This result can be presented in the maps below as a regrouping of all the groups, which helps to analyze the whole area. T he first map shows our current analysis groups for the cluster analysis. The second one explains the pro bability matrix table and which group can possibly be close to each other and has strong relation between each other. 124 Figure-4.19: Categories of O perational Geographical Units  Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) The first map presents the grouping of the grids depending on the similarity ratios. On the other hand, the second map presents the regrouping (1st, 2nd, 3rd) of to the grids depending on the similarity between each other. Data analysis can be done with grids depending on the similarity ratios or regrouping of the grids data. But regrouping data didn`t give sign ificant results for the method application. That is why cluster description matrix is prepared by the grouping of the grids depending on the similarity ratios. 5 groups are used for data analysis in the Brownfield areas. Table-4.5: Cluster Description Matrix C l u s t e r  D e s c ription     1  <=  Gro u p   2  <=  Gro u p   3  <=  Gro u p   4  <=  Gro u p     5  <=  Gro u p %0 ‐15  3,54194961 1,84997793 0,88524216 1,63820148   0,997530395 %15 ‐30  4,02476063 2,25865047 0,51799299 0,89243526   0,355408362 >%30   2,53732204 2,53446607 0,40003043 0,45948264   0,267301919 4  3,61010985 2,8406486 0,87146356 1,3676428   0,77850051 7  3,71689058 2,40330139 0,67977963 1,43675392   0,764898775 8  3,44611167 2,3255816 0,62721338 0,8494616   0,376802779 CKO   2,17584846 1,54391804 0,531723 0,25152672   0,199789204 CKA   2,01531915 1,50482476 0,2297618 0,65375136   0,323637974 KK   0,33688613 0,11725342 0,0089639 0,12401206   0,096104216 CA   1,52002285 1,78807355 0,4576605 0,41703545   0,272926968 125 QAL   2,85406925 1,16615047 0,89533756 1,60481864   1,40203696 JKII   0,62384488 0,26187789 0,1172145 1,24423109   0,535898221 JKI   2,12998689 0,56678843 0,40023241 1,50953697   0,825699697 QYM   0,44406142 0,61511366 0,21516373 0,07448462   0,060040313 DCY   0,51789084 0,89849008 0,10590724 0,01477986   0,220598274 QD   0,21343124 0,0698558 0,0418326 0,17908928   0,468032552 QP   0,51833887 0,1439494 0,2621913 0,51748335   0,028506746 School  A r e a s    2,07055309 0,52506787 1,05865938 1,91393455   2,321645706 Garden   3,70716851 2,05069089 1,03811534 2,09149706   0,791229511 Military  A r e a s   0,64455254 0,13460702 0,13558002 0,81198635   0,713675374 Free  a r e a s   0,55478436 0,20257051 0,11748618 0,56447483   0,941635116 Governmen t a l  A r e a s   1,55220297 0,6928469 1,03288504 1,40661056   1,780913904 Copse   3,25044116 2,46451296 0,28781715 0,385759   0,116992553 Religious  A r e a s   3,09589986 0,98729773 1,13005968 1,51595866   1,38761979 Park  A r e a s    1,04608426 0,32234517 0,49887243 1,56691015   2,024777094 Health   Facilities  A r e a s   1,08804666 0,36790556 0,17496186 0,97371833   0,48980364 Trade  A r e a s   1,18600248 0,25950614 0,57390037 1,28390843   2,193284291 Cemetery  A r e a s    2,0739313 0,80511337 0,66501958 0,33363643   0,094957824 TTK  A r e a s   1,79444816 0,62058169 1,11550991 0,82718899   1,232403919 TCDD  A r e a s   0,7104999 0,19988312 0,86119198 0,50506643   0,205855243 Cultural  A ctivities  A r e a s 0,56693511 0,09295107 0,47868598 0,8748713   2,183850654 Sport  A r e a s   0,40805601 0,11949154 0,16214151 1,59376281   0,014357621 Manufact u r e   A r e a s   1,20452756 0,62517013 0,94178713 0,44500961   0,210517569 Storage  A r e a s  f o r  C o a l  Mining   1,09200685 0,59632034 0,26562512 0,085044   0,014980811 Harbor  A r e a s   0,56100785 0,23579064 0,297081 0,91362956   1,296034442 Social  A r e a s   0,53501068 0,13040238 0,20323431 1,75325446   0,16855762 126 C o a l  W a s hing   A r e a s   0,49257798 0,06663125 0,16938887 0,41132765   1,068488362 University  A r e a s   0,48675235 0,12941428 0,07232676 0,8444022   0,458333063 Houses   3,48903604 1,64114725 1,03729709 2,1905093   0,917336526 Abandoned  H o us es   1,36773108 0,50466805 0,35951759 0,54738753   0,521949113 Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) Cluster Description Matrix defin es five characteristics of the cluster. They provide detailed information about not only the abandoned areas but also all the areas in the city. Cluster 1: Slope: From 0 and more than 30% all slope areas can be determined in this cluster Aspect: North (East-West), South (East-West ), East and West part of Aspect can be defined in the Cluster 1 Geology: Kozlu Formation (Cko), Karadon Formation (Cka), Kilimli Formation (Kk), Alluvium (Qal), Member İnciğez (JKii), İnaltı Formation (JKi), Beach Sedimentations (Qp) Land Use: Areas of School, Gardens, Copse, Areas of Religious, Areas of Health Facilities, Areas of Cemetery, Areas of TTK, Sport Areas, Manufacture Areas, Storages Areas for Coal Mining, Houses, Abandoned Houses Cluster 2: Geology: Formation of Alacaağz ı (Ca), Y ılanlı Formation (DCy), Filling (Qd), Slope Rubble (Qym) Cluster 3: Land Use: Areas of TCDD 127 Cluster 4: Land Use: Areas of Military, Free Areas, Social Areas, University Areas Cluster 5: Land Use: Governmental Areas, Areas of Parks, Areas of Trade, Areas of Cultural Activities, Harbor Areas, Coal Washing Areas An overview of the assessment suggests that the clusters 1 and 5 are more important than the others in that these clusters include more Brownfield areas in the city. The following section makes an attemp t to examine problems of Brownfield areas, potential Brownfield areas and surrounding Brownfield areas in the study. 4.3. Defining Zonguldak's Urban Regeneration Areas and the Decision Model of the Brownfield Design The TTK is basically the largest economic portion of Zonguldak, which is gradually reducing the number of its workers. For that reason, Z onguldak cannot maintain its employment conditions. The city has limited resources and employment opportunities. It does not enjoy favorable co nditions for agriculture structure, industrial development and has not got appropriate spaces and development structures for future development. The city needs radical investment decisions through government policies in order to create new job opportunities. From this economic view, the city suffers from former coal mining areas, and abandoned houses as Brownfield areas. This situation creates negative interaction between the land uses in the city and Brownfield areas. This process of city development necessarily changes the growth system, leads to the decline of the social and economic life, and has a negative impact on nearby land use structure (Figure-4.20). Urban regeneration is a common solution for ecological, economic, and social reconstruction. Even so, an appropriate solution for Brownfield redevelopment should provide a spatial analysis along with ecological, economic, social analyses. Identific city de downsi Brownf develop Our pu method prevale charact are fou of econ Fig So ation of B velopment ze its st r ield areas ment, wh rpose is ology on nt details eristics of nd in the T omic decl ure-4.20: urce: Mus rownfield in order ucture an . Moreove ich results to test q derelict ar in derelict Brownfiel TK areas ine (Figure Current Br tafa ERGE areas and to unders d employ r, Zonguld in both so uantitative eas. The q areas. Th d areas. B . Some of -4.21). 128 ownfield A N, 2009, future pot tand the ment rat ak is not r cial declin and qua uantitative e Grid Ba rownfield the TTK a reas in Zo (Author`s ential Brow problem. e, some eady to int e and eco litative m method sed Mode areas and reas are a nguldak C own image nfield are When th e of the a egrate the nomic dec ethods as enables o l can help potential lready aba ity s) as is esse TTK dec reas turne se areas line in the a new ne to anal to determ Brownfield ndoned b ntial in ided to d into into city city. kind of yze the ine the areas ecause 129 Figure-4.21: Determination of Brownfield Areas Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) These core areas can be defined as Brownfield areas in the city center. It is essential to regenerate these areas to make them habi table and to help integrate sustainable approaches into the city for future development. The analysis suggested that the TTK areas have generally a slope of 0-30%, and have North, Northeastern, and Northwestern aspect. JKI, CA, CKO and CKA are the Geological structures for the Brownfield areas. The dominant land use structures in the Brownfield areas and Potential Brownfield areas are as follows; Garden Areas, Free Areas, Harbor, Storage Areas for Coal Washing and Copse. From o importa not be types o The C Geolog Northw The ar geology charact Decisio Turkis h cities. T Zongul known follows S verall ass nt Brownf the only o f land use oal Wash y is CKO estern. La ea has fav is not us er. n Model o law num his figure dak. Each that one ; Figure-4. 2 ource: Mu essment, ield areas ne in Zong . ing Area , CKA nd use is orable slo eful for m f the Brow ber 3194 is 2 187 grid need grid has 2: Old Co stafa ERG Storage A in the cit uldak. T h and surro and CA. comprised pe condit ore hous nfield Des defines an 220 m2 ac s an active 1000000 130 al Washi n EN, 2007, reas for C y center (F ese areas unding ar Aspect fa of Housi ions, but ing or trad ign for the active gr cording to green ar m2 areas. g Area in Z (Author`s oal Was h igure-4.2 are also n eas have ctor are ng, Garde it does no ing cente Coal Was een area the popu ea of 53 3 The proc ongudak own imag ing is cur 2). Obviou egatively a slope North, N n, Copse t get muc r dependin hing Area of 10 m2 lation of t 46, 8292 6 ess can e) rently one sly, this a affected b factor of ortheaste and Trade h sun shin g on the for per pe he city ce 6 82927 m 2, be formula of the rea will y other %0-15. rn and Areas. e. The alluvial rson in nter for as it is ted as 131 Population of Area*Recreational (Open Green Space) Areas for per person/Number of Grid 2187220*10= 2 187 220/41=53 346, 8292682927 m 2 Grids are also used for determining the state of land uses, green areas and settlements. In our specific grid for the Coal Wa shing Area in grid 10, the amount of green areas for active and passive areas is as follows; Active Green Areas (Parks) [0, 62] 0, 62*1000000/100=6200 m 2 Passive Green Areas (Garden + Cemetery + Copse) [38, 31 + 0, 00 + 14, 09= 52, 4] 52,4*1000000/100=524000 m 2 An overview of the green areas suggests that the amount is obviously more than enough for people with passive and active green areas. In reality, however, it is known that passive green areas are not usef ul for people. Therefore, they cannot be regarded as useful green areas. In this sense, passive green areas are not enough to supply recreational opportunities for the people in this specific grid. As a result, the Brownfield (59000 m 2 in the grid amount of Brownfield areas) design should be provided with recreational opportunities by approaches to solutions. The grid analysis with cluster analysis presented similar characteristics all around Zonguldak. The model concludes that design approaches should take recreational opportunities into consideration for Brownfield areas. The method used in this study requires Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture implementations. The reason is that places for the required active urban green areas are chosen depending on the ratio of population and analysis methods in urban planning. On the other hand, landscape architecture employs different analyses and models for active urban green areas. In these implementations, different analyses and models are used for a city depending on professions. This is not enough to make decisions on urban regeneration and revitalization. Old indus trial areas are located in the city center, which presents some principles for sustainable implementations; ¾ Through functional use, recreational and green areas should be created in those abandoned areas which are almost inhabitable. ¾ d a These standa solution gives p arrange in dere Variou s cities. areas. continu isolated employ mining a typica F The leg such a Necessary evelopme nd proble principles rds in aban s when c riority to ment can lict areas. analysis Urbanizati Especially e to expa regions ees” (BO cities. The l coal min igure-4.2 3 acy of coa complex functions nt. Solutio ms with in must help doned are ompared w green st provide a technique on proces , coal m nd over th they nee YD, 2010 example ing city (F : View of l mining a land use will be ns will be tegration i achieve s as. The a ith classi ructures i n option fo s aim to ac s can be ining area e mined o d to pro ). This de of Zongul igure-4.23 Coal Was S reas adja challenge 132 provided provided nto the urb ustainabili nalysis pro cal approa n the des r public de hieve sus defined by s is likel ut areas ( vide hous velopmen dak is on e ). hing Area ource: [5 1 cent to the , because for aband for deficie an structu ty in urban vides mo ches to B ign of d mands an tainable a an incre y to deve BAUER, 2 ing and t causes of the cit Developm ] city cente of decre oned are ncy in ur re. regenera re accurat rownfield a erelict are d healthy nd healthy ase in po lop as m 006). “Wh other nec unhealthy ies that ca ent in the r of Zong asing coa as trough ban devel tion and ra e and sust reas. The as. Recre city devel developm pulation in etropolitan en mines essities t developm n be ident City Cente uldak pre s l producti urban opment ise life ainable model ational opment ent for urban cities open in o their ent in ified as r ent just on and 133 decreased number of laborers (WORRALL et al., 2004). O ne of these areas is the coal washing area in Zonguldak. These coal mining structures are helped to have a new urbanization development (Figure-4.24). In a very general way, the major urban regeneration projects can be linked with solutions for derelict areas and solution pathways of the future (PLÖGER, 2007). Urban regeneration examines sustainable and healthy development frameworks within which principles of urban regeneration must be turned into practical planning action (ROGER, 2005). The general approa ch to urban regeneration and technical methodology provides a detailed analysis and supports development of derelict areas. One of the current problems in many developing countries is the rapid rate of de- industrialization. In this process, wide dis parities among urban areas remain in terms of economic conditions, access to infrastructure and services, opportunities socio- economic mobility and control over natural resources and local development [60]. It is the reason that people start to migrate to other places at a very rapid pace, because of increased de-industrialization. Most places in developing countries have not succeeded in finding an appropriate solution for their derelict areas. In an effort to provide regeneration, many derelict areas encourage the new development option in post-industrial cities. Unfortunately, this post-industrial development is often highly dependent on economic opportunities and often makes problems of unemployment worse. Urban regeneration can be defined as replacing functionality of the derelict areas and finding sustainable ways of analyzing soci al, ecological and economic factors. The purpose of re-gaining derelict areas is to integrate them into city development through with appropriate solutions. Urban regeneration projects are a priority for the coal washing area in Zonguldak, which helps to test the new methodological approach used in this study. The model of this study provides healthy and sustainable urbanization for aba ndoned areas. The purpose of this study is only to emphasize on an appropriate solution fo r regaining abandoned areas from macro scale to micro scale. 134 Figure-4.24: View of Coal Washing Area A fter Tearing Down of the Coal Washing Area Source: Mustafa ERGEN,2007, (Author`s own images) 135 4.4. Conclusion The results of the analysis indicate that there is a potential solution for increasing abandonment problem in city development. The decision Model on Brownfield areas helps to analyze design solutions in a sustainable way for Brownfield areas. The qualitative analysis shows that Zonguldak no t only needs to transform its Brownfield areas, but also more planning and design approaches. The methodological analysis suggests some new planning approaches as a general outline for city development. These new planning approaches can be defined as follows; ¾ Increasing property problems that cover governmental areas, ¾ The changes in the city needs other approaches to functions, ¾ Land structure is composed of slopes, which poses a problem for planning and development, ¾ The problem in Zonguldak is not consi dered together with its physical, social, legal and economic features in solutions and solution implementations. ¾ Zonguldak has a strategically important profile in the region because of its location, identity and socio-economic structure. Zonguldak has been affected by the acceleration of urbanization sinc e the 1950’s, which has resulted in migration in parallel with Turkey’s social and economic structure. ¾ Certain practices within the framework of the city development in Zonguldak lead to compression and concentration in certain areas, which results in unhealthy and irregular urban structure within squatter house areas. Currently, the city primarily needs to define its current and near future problems to adopt the right kind of solutions; ¾ The study inevitably addressed the property problems (ANONYMOUS, 2006). In the city, the state enj oys 80% of the land such as municipality, the TTK, forests, etc... (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Th is plays a negative role in city development (ANONYMOUS, 2006). ¾ Zonguldak is different in natural structure, ownership structure, features and groundwater resources (ANONYMOUS , 2006). Although the city has had rapid change and development with population increase, it has limitations (areas of forest, sea, unfavorable geological areas, excessive slope, etc...) 136 (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Furthermore, the city development is concentrated and compressed in certain areas due to the property problems (ANONYMOUS, 2006). It was formed by a continuous pressure that resulted in a crowded city structure in Zonguldak (ANONYMOUS, 2006). ¾ Zonguldak does not have too many flat te rrains for the suitable development, because of its topographical conditions (ANONYMOUS , 2006). A large part of the city is located in areas with a slope of 30-40% which resulted in irregular development in the city (ANONYMOUS, 2006). ¾ From an economic perspective, the TTK decided to decrease the number of its employees and shut down some parts of its areas, which created Brownfield areas in the city center and the whole city. This has had a negative impact on the appearance of the city and its economic conditions. Understanding abandoned problems and redevelopment options can help to reveal a new dimension and can bring new dynamics to the city. The strategies given above prove that Zonguldak needs a new development option to survive in the current economic trends. Abandoned areas lead us to the conclusion that new development options could help the city. The present study emphasizes that it is necessary to have a new scientific approach through quantitative and qualitative analyses. The problem of Brownfield areas is very common in developed countries. Regeneration solutions guide undeveloped countries or any other countries in which there are shrinking conditions as a new pr oblem in city development. There has been a lively debate on the issue of shrinking in the scientific community. This study has presented a new and appropriate solution for Brownfield areas. Sustainability of Brownfield areas is based on the principles of economic, ecological and social components. The present study has also put emphasis on derelict areas with these components. It presents a detailed analysis of the derelict areas in Zonguldak through quantitative and qualitative methods. As a result, the study presents an understanding of the characteristics of the Brownfield areas in Zonguldak within theoretical and empirical approaches. Currently, one of the Brownfield areas is observed near the port that used to be an old Coal Washing area. This area has a ne gative impact on the city structure which 137 requires a solution for regaining the city development. The new model is implemented to find an accurate solution for the problem. The next step is going to explain that Turkish cities will determine de velopment options for near future in an economic context and create a new planning system for their Brownfield areas. 138 5 - RECOMMENDATION STRATE GIES FOR TURKISH CITY DEVELOPMENT IN AN URBAN REGENERATI ON CONTEXT and DEVELOPING AN ACTION MODE L FOR URBAN RE GENERATION The current approaches to urban regeneration target economic and cultural redevelopment, social cohesion as well as physical rehabilitation and physical aspect [20]. Population and job loss are the main indicators of the transformational change in the spatial structure for cities in the globalization process. Actual development of Zonguldak suffers from economic decline and transformational change of spatial pattern in the old coal mining sites. This means that it is necessary to have a new spatial construction of consideration into the abandoned sites in Zonguldak. Shrinking cities present a great variety of problems for urban development and have a drastic effect on economic conditions in cities. According to Jones and Wild (1991), cities have problems with social a nd economic capital, old infrastructure, environment, and image associated with deindustrialization in old industrial regions (IŞIN, 2009). The Turkish urban planning system must also provide a solution for the shrinking problem in the globalization proc ess. It might be possible to develop new planning approaches and systems, which address urban shrinkage and the major environment and resources issues for Turkish cities (WATSON, 2009). 5.1. Assessme n t of Brownfie ld Effects on Nearby Cities The change in Zonguldak’s economy towards globalization has sign ificant effects on the city and region. This transition in the economy influences the spatial structure of Zonguldak to a great extent (MAIDE and JAKA B, 2007). Several Brownfield sties in Zonguldak are largely locat ed in the city centre and ongoing development has significant effects on the region. The provinces Bartın and Karabük were separated fr om Zonguldak in 1991 and 1995 respectively. Even so, these cities have still strong economic ties with coal mining production in Zonguldak. Ka rabük Steel Plant was est ablished in 1937 (ERTUNA, 1998). It is an integrated steel plant using domestic ore and coal in its production (ERTUNA, 1998). It is obvious that there is a strong evidence of interrelation between Karabük and Zonguldak. Shrink age in Zonguldak’s economic development results in drastica Thank s region populat region increas has bee Fig Howev charact and inc (IŞIN, 2 downsi been a The firs census Turke y census lly negativ to its eco and, acco ion of Zon of wester ing since t n associa ure-5.1: W er, closure eristics to reasing o 009). T h zing of T T ny other j o t census (1927), t h is 1, 96% of 2000 s 15 9,27 0 e effects nomic stat rding to t guldak ( % n Turkey he founda ted with th W estern Bl s, massiv urban ec ut migratio e main re K decrea b opportu was carri e proportio . This prop howed tha 13, 5 ,820% % 11,33 also on Ba e, Zonguld he Census % 31) indic (Figure-5 tion of the e rapid de ack Sea R Source: A e lay-offs onomic de n rates h ason beh sed the n nities in th ed out in n of the p ortion was t the prop 620% 0% 139 rtın in this ak is the held in 2 ates how 5 .1). The Republic velopmen egion Pop NONYM O of labor, cline while ave indica ind popula umber of e city deve 1927 (TA S opulation highest w ortion was 31,0 18,96 0 process. one of the 000, its p important populatio in Turkey t ever sinc ulation Ra US, 2002 and early decreas ted urban tion declin coal emp lopment ( TI and D of Zonguld ith 2, 13% reduced 00% % most impo opulation the city is n of Zong and Zongu e. te Depend retiremen ing popula depopula e in Zong loyees an IŞIN, 2009 EMIRCI). ak to the % in the cen to 0, 97% Zon Kas Bol Düz Bar Kar rtant citie is 615 7 2 in the Bla uldak h a ldak urba s on the C t policies tion growt tion in Zon uldak is t d there ha 9 ). According total popul sus of 19 (Table-5. 1 guldak tamonu u z ce tın abük s in the 5. The ck Sea s been nization ity remain h rates guldak hat the ve not to the ation in 80. The ). The 140 data on the level of population between 1927 and 2000 sugge sts that there was a sharp decline in population. Table-5.1: Zonguldak city Popul ation Rate Depends on Turkey YEARS POPUL A T I O N P O P U L A T I O N RATE DEPE ND S ON TUR KE Y (%) ZONG ULDA K T U R K E Y 1 9 2 7 2 6 7 96 5 1 3 6 48 2 70 1 . 9 6 193 5 3 2 2 10 8 1 6 1 58 0 18 1 . 9 9 194 0 3 4 9 78 3 1 7 8 20 9 50 1 . 9 6 194 5 3 8 3 48 1 1 8 7 90 1 74 2 . 0 4 195 0 4 2 6 68 4 2 0 9 47 1 88 2 . 0 4 195 5 4 9 1 14 7 2 4 0 64 7 63 2 . 0 4 196 0 5 6 9 05 9 2 7 7 54 8 20 2 . 0 5 196 5 6 5 0 19 1 3 1 3 91 4 21 2 . 0 7 197 0 7 4 3 65 4 3 5 6 05 1 76 2 . 0 9 197 5 8 3 6 15 6 4 0 3 47 7 19 2 . 0 7 198 0 9 5 4 51 2 4 4 7 36 9 57 2 . 1 3 198 5 1 0 4 49 4 5 5 0 6 64 4 58 2 . 0 6 199 0 1 0 7 35 6 0 5 6 4 73 0 35 1 . 9 0 200 0 6 1 5 59 9 6 7 8 44 9 03 0 . 9 1 Source: ANONYMOUS, 2002 Zonguldak has changed in terms of admin istrative boundaries ever since the separation of Bartın and Karabük from the city. Although Zonguldak is the most crowded city in the region, it has serious problems with losing population in the current globalization process. Current ly, the recovery and improvement of abandoned or obsolete areas, such as old mining areas, infrastructures and out of use installations, is a key issue in Z onguldak (GIOVANNI, 2009). It should be noted that the shrinking problem has radical effects on Zonguldak and western Black Sea region development. 141 5.2. Action Strategies at Urbanization Level Urban Brownfield redevelopment has recently emerged as both major economic development and environmental priority in developed countries (BARTSCH et al., 1991; U.S. CONFERE NCE of MAYORS, 1998; MEYER, 1998). Currently, Zonguldak city in Turkey confronts with the challenge of economic decline and population loss in former coalfield sites. Urban regeneration in these sites must focus on an analysis of economic, ecological and social factors for sustainable development. The purpose of this part of the study is to identify developing component of a framework that links abandoned sites with redevelopment initiatives in ways that lead to the improved and sustained economic, social and ecological viability in Turkish citi es (PRIBLE, BAKER and DANIELS et al., 2005). Urban regeneration and Brownfield reuse improve local land economies and aid sustainable land use (JACKSON, 2010). Additionally, urban regeneration and Brownfield reuse are also the crucial tools of descriptive and explanatory research methods. This study is based on the key concept of sustainability in abandoned areas. Data analysis can help to create new innovative solutions associated with abandoned sites and sustainable development. The fundamental development of sustainability in Brownfield sites has basic elements into the methodological implementations (Figure-5.2) . These basic elements can be formulated within factors of ecological, economic, and social, characteristics of areas for appropriate solutions for Brownfield sites. 142 Figure-5.2: Fundamental Approach to Su stainable Redevelopment Brownfield Source: Adapted from [4] A fundamental concept of the planning process is that primary parameters of sustainable development-the characteristics of areas, social, ecological, and economic system of a community- are crucial components (SCGPN, 1996; RAPPORT, 1997; [4]) . This approach to urban regeneration emphasizing the environmental and economic spheres of regeneration is replaced by a more integrated approach to urban redevelopment which links the stimulation of economic activities and environmental improvements with social, cultural, and characteristics of areas elements (CALANTONIA et al., 2009). The implementation guide for new urban regeneration strategy can give specific guidance on what should be included at all levels of the Brownfield redevelopment. This guide is expected to create a new approac h to the shrinking problem in Turkish cities. The basic approach to Brownfield redevelopment includes a description of particular elements of the solution. It starts with the description of diagnosed problems connected to undertaken research on Brownfield redevelopment issues (TÖLLE et al., 2009). Interpretations of  Brownfield Elements  SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  ECONOMIC  CHARACTERSITICS  ECOLOGICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  CHARACTERISTICS   OF AREAS   Sustainable Brownfield  Development  143 According to Göksu (2003), regeneration areas can generally consider the following strategies for sustainable achievement; ¾ Different approaches and strategies need to be developed because different regions have different problems, ¾ Each project helps to improve the future vision of the city, ¾ Determination of each proposal solution has importance cooperation among local government, investors and public intervention in an organized way. The purpose of these strategies is to provide solution to assist and guide communities, and municipalities in the planning and implementation of sustainable Brownfield development [ 4 ] . The results of this study will assist Turkish cities in evaluating various approaches being taken by Brownfield redevelopment in order to refine or develop new methodological approaches [4] . Urban areas suffer from several constraints of abandoned areas, which lead to the shrinking problem in terms of econom ic and population condition. The abandoned facility becomes a constantly problematic area and can spawn blight in adjoining areas (BARTSCH, 2003). Many Brownfield sites are caught in a vicious cycle of decline, which only exacerbates the problem in city development (BARTSCH, 2003). Brownfield sites of Zonguldak require the kind of developm ent strategies associated with urbanization process. The strategies used by Zonguldak to deal with abandoned sites mainly focus on using sustainability component of urban planning instruments (GRIMSKI and FERBER, 2001). In particular, action strategies focus on urban development that is likel y to regain abandoned areas and to sustain the city development in Zonguldak. These strategi es are determined and scaled as follows: ¾ Enhancement of community access to the Brownfield area, ¾ Maximal improved usability of the Brownf ield area and using for recreation, nature experience, ¾ Renewal of the memory of the place (industry, green areas, landscape and people), ¾ Improve sustainability of the environment for urban areas, 144 ¾ Improve sustainability in a quality of life for urban areas, ¾ Develop approach for sustainable regeneration of urban derelict area and Brownfield in Europe cities, ¾ Provide a sustainable city and sustainable urban development in Zonguldak, ¾ Provide sustainable lands re-use in urban areas. The assessment, remediation and redevelopment of Brownfield sites have numerous benefits to the urbanization process (WHITN EY, 2010). The resu lt of the study indicates that action strategies offer an important contribution and guidance to the implementation of urban regeneration in Zonguldak (WHITNEY, 2010). 5.3. Developing an (Conceptual Framework) Action Model for the Implementation of Regeneration Projects Despite the fact that Zonguldak is declining very slow ly, former coalfield sites suffer from decline related to economic corruption and population loss. The Regeneration Framework is based upon a comprehensive understanding of where Zonguldak has come from and, from outputs of the shrinking pr oblem solution, how it should be arranged [61]. The main purpose is to act as a catalyst for regeneration in the sense that it can attract other resources from private, public and voluntary sectors in order to bring about improvements in abandoned areas (POTTS, 2008). The Process of Conceptual Framework Development on Brownfield Sites for Turkish Cities This section focuses on the research question two: “How can Br ownfield areas be integrated with to city development?”. Within the conceptual framework of Turkish cities, the shrinking problem can be defined, in simple terms, as either economic collapse or population decline. The conceptual model outlines the principal approaches in this study and identifies entry points for macro and micro scale approach into the solution [62]. In this study, a qualitative method and a quantitative method are used for the identification of macro scale analysis (regarding the social, ecological and economic factors) and for the identification of micro scale analysis (regarding the characteristics of Brownfield sites) respectively. The method should be 145 to build on the progress and success to develop abandoned areas [63]. Urban regeneration ideas and strategies can help to overcome the shrinking problem in city development. Each level of the conceptual framework approach involves utilizing Brownfield sites for Turkish cities. The conceptual framework gives rise to an overarching project concern about potential planning approaches and construction schemes [64]. The approach of conceptual framework offers cities a way to redevelop and revitalize their abandoned areas in urban regeneration projects (J OHNSON and TASHMAN, 2002). Urban regeneration projects contribute to sust ainable development through recycling of derelict land and buildings, and facilitating the development of sustainability in cities (CHOUCH, DENNEMANN, 2000). Elements of the conceptual framework are the most conducive to progress in Brownfield redevelopment and urban planning practice for Turkish cities (HEROIU- IONESCU, 2010). The outcome of the shrinking cities is a profound effect of the territory, which makes sense of the globa lization impact on urban fabric (MAGATTI and MARTINELLI, 2011). The fundamental approach of conceptual model has three components of sustainable development (economic, social and ecological components) and enables one to analyze the c haracteristics of areas (Figure-5.3). The conceptual model for Brownfield sites emphasizes that all of the elements can facilitate the efficient identification of best practice approaches and research gaps (FERBER et al., 2006). 146 Figure-5.3: A Conceptual Model of Urban Regeneration for Turkish Cities (Illustrative interaction Matrix for the Urban Land System) Environmental Health Protection Attract Tourists Prevent Contamination Provided habitat in Parks Social Provide a Market Analysis of Land Opportunities Fund Habitat Conversation Provide Jobs Economic Provide Revenue Provide Effective Use of Land Resources Design of People Necessities Defined of Appropriate Development Options Characteristics of Brownfield Areas Source: Adapted from FERBER et al., 2006 According to Ferber et al. (2006), the interaction matrix can be used to study the relative instructiveness, dominance and dependence of the parameters. Ferber et al. (2006) described interaction matrix as follows: “The sum along a row is a measure of the influence of a parameter on other parameters (cause). The sum down a column is a measure of the dependence of one parameter on the others in the system (effect). A plot of cause against effect allows dominant parameters (plotting below the 45° line) to be differentiated from dependent parameters (plotting above the 45° line). The farther from the origin a parameter plots, the more interactive it is; the more influences or is influenced by the rest of system. The overall system performance is summarized by the mean cause and mean effect point, Pbar, that lies on the 45° line (mean cause=mean effect; FERBER et al, 2006)” The urban regeneration approach focuses on solving problem in order to provide sustainability with this systematic approach. Brownfield sites are an important component for the conceptual model for developing sustainable approaches in the 147 cities (BOOTT et al., 2000). Sustainable development provides incorporation among economic, social, environmental and characteristics of areas needs (BOTT et al., 2000). 5.4. Summary and Overview Methodologically, the analysis in this study reveals a new scientific approach to Brownfield sites. With the case study in Zonguldak , this study tests and seeks an answer to the research questions presented by the hypothesis. A combination of qualitative method (SWOT) and quantitative method (Grid Model with Cluster Analysis) were used in order to find an appropriate solution for Brownfield sites. The lack of macro and micro scale analyses ar e one of the obstacles to understanding the shrinking problem as a whole. T he methodology of encouraging abandoned sites redevelopment provides a complete analysis through a qualitative and quantitative approach from macro scale to micro scale. The first priority of the methodology is one of major concerns of a new scientific approach and an analysis of the gap between macro scale and micro scale in Brownfield issue. This methodology is an opportunity to bring together best practices and various tools that are developed to create the best opportunities for an integrated approach for future development of Brownfield sites (ERTEL et al., 2007). It is concluded that this methodology in Turkish ci ties can provide an appropriate solution for the Brownfield redevelopment approach. Adaptability within Brownfield redevelopment should be provided by planning for longer term development potential with identifying solution approach [65]. The theoretical analysis of the study is the focus on how to handle negative urban development (LAURSEN, 2008). The methodol ogy includes an analysis of both macro scale, and micro scale in order to understand the problem in either way. The design decision model and conceptual model are finalized as a new systematic approach to a more accurate and appropriate solution in Brownfield sites. The study concludes with an obvious approach to defining several strategies for Zonguldak and other Turkish cities; 148 ¾ Sustainability refers to economic and social need as well as the ecology and characteristics of areas issues. ¾ Achieving sustainability emphasizes new structures and approaches in regeneration project. ¾ Shrinking cities can provide new dynam ics and approaches in order to survive in the globalization process. ¾ Shrinking problem can provide an opport unity to transform the structure of cities structures into a global view. ¾ The shrinking problem provides new opportunities for development in abandoned areas. ¾ Development of other sectors in former industrial areas can provide new options and development directions in cities. ¾ The potential development options must be defined for the future of cities in the planning system. ¾ The Brownfield areas must have spatial data analysis for urban regeneration implementation. ¾ Turkish urbanization standards must take into consideration in every part of city that makes to understand us priority of city development. ¾ Design decision model proves that the design should cover the necessity of city development. ¾ The methodology shows that Brownfield problems need an analysis from macro scale to micro scale. To achieve these strategies, problems associated with a definite conceptual structure are considered and the analysis of the macro and micro scale on the point of view of the design decision model (COBO and FORTUNY, 2000) is focused. The methodology allows abandoned areas to be regenerated in a realistic solution approach for Turkish cities. A research met hod must be appropriate to explore macro and micro scales and to test research hypotheses on the case study. An important aspect of this study`s research is that it uses a new methodological approach to Brownfield redevelopment. This methodology can be useful for every abandoned area and every shrinking city. The conceptual model presents an explanation of sustainable development fo r the use of ecological, economic, and social characteristics of areas to guide Turkish cities. 149 As we have seen, the data is consistent across the two separate methods. It seems that the model of design decision is a consequence of derelict areas in a scientific manner. The findings of the present method define an accurate solution for Brownfield areas. Finally, the regeneration solution and design model of derelict areas are linked to the quantit ative and qualitative analyses. The final point to this solution approach is that this method (design decision model) is the only sustainable solution for abandoned areas. Consequently, the methodology reveals new development dimensions which unite global culture, and preferred social, economic and characteristics of areas. The methodological approach focuses on an appropriate solution for sustainable development. Substantive integration of macro and micro scales are examined to support a sustainable solution for every aspect of the shrinking problem. 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2011] [64]The Transportation for Communities, 2010, Grand Rapids Michigan US-131 S- 195 Curve Replacement; Collabrative Design, Construction Closure of Central Urban Access, Copyright National Academy of Science, Avaolable at: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/ shrp2/SHRP2_CS_C01_Michigan.pdf, [Accessed: 5 August 2011] [65]Sustainable Sydney 2030 City of Sydney Startegic Plan-City Strategy- Sustainable Redevelopment Renewal and Design Supporting Information, 2008, Copyright SGS Economic & Planning, Available at: http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/2030/ documents/strategy/09_DEVELOPMENT_ RENEWAL_DESIGN.pdf, [Accessed: 5 August 2011] FOOTNOTE BIBLIOGRAPHY Top-down and bottom-up design, 2011, Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top- down_and_bottom-up_design, [A ccessed: 14 June 2011] Anonymus, 2002, 2000 Census of Population, State of Institute Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey, State Institute of Statistics-Printing Division, Ankara United Nation Conference on the Human 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Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti., Ankara 197 APPENDICIES 198 APPENDIX-I ZONGULDAK (CITY CENTER) CURRENT LAND USE INFORMATION VALUES of SPATIAL USAGE TYPE OF AREAS AREAS (HA) % SETTLEMENT AREAS 696.47 28.42 URBAN WORKSPACE (STORAGE, MANUFACTURE-INDUSTRIAL AREAS, etc…) 4 8 . 6 6 1.99 URBAN SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE AREAS (TRADE AREAS, EDUCATIONAL AREAS, UNIVERSITY, SOCIAL- CULTURAL AREAS, SPORT AREAS, etc…) 2 5 3 . 0 8 10.33 ACTIVE GREEN AREAS (PARK, PLAYGROUND, RECREATION AREAS, etc…) 1 3 1 . 7 9 5.38 URBAN TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AREAS (RAILWAY AREAS, TECHNICAL IN FRASTRUCTURE AREAS, CANAL, ROADS, etc…) 4 2 6 . 7 4 17.42 TOTAL of URBAN RESIDENTIAL AREAS 1556.74 63.53 OTHER GREEN AREAS (AFFORESTRATION AREAS, HIGHWA Y PROTECTION BAND, etc…) 425.58 17.37 FOREST AREAS (FOREST ATTRIBUTE AREAS) 365.36 14.91 RESERVE DEVELOPMENT AREAS 102.64 4.19 OTHER AREAS 893.59 36.47 GENERAL TOTAL 2450.33 100.00 Source: Anonymous, 2006, Zonguldak Belediyesi Genel Yakla şım Raporu, Modül Planlama Harita Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti., Ankara 199 APPENDIX-II Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) 200 APPENDIX-III Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) 201 APPENDIX-IV Source: Anonymous, 2005, “Zonguldak Belediyesi İmar Planına Esas Jeolojik-Jeofizik-Jeoteknik Etüd Raporu”, ARE Jeoteknik Müh. Müş. Ltd. Şti., Ankara 202 APPENDIX-V Source: Anonymous, 2006, Zonguldak Belediyesi Genel Yakla şım Raporu, Modül Planlama Harita Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti., Ankara 203 APPENDIX-VI GRID MATRIX FOR SLOPE, ASPECT, GEOLOGY, LAND USE Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) 204 APPENDIX-VII DENDROGRAM DEPENDS ON SIMILARITY of DISTANCE for VARIABILITY 1 32 39 33 34 36 37 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 8 38 40 41 5 28 22 9 23 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 25 19 20 31 26 30 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 10 11 7 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 16 18 17 24 14 27 15 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) AGGLOMERATIVE HIERARCHICAL CLUSTER ANALYSIS Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2009, (Author`s own construct) 205 APPENDIX-VIII 30 YAERS of TEMPERATUR E for ZONGULDAK CITY January February March April May June July August September October November December 1980 4,4 4,8 6,5 10 16,3 20 21, 3 21,4 17 16,7 13,5 9,4 1981 7,4 6,3 8,5 10,6 13,7 20,2 21, 5 21,6 18,7 17,2 10,4 9,5 1982 5,7 3,6 6 10,6 13,3 20 20, 1 20,8 19,7 15,2 10 11,8 1983 5,1 6,2 8,4 13,1 17 18,9 22, 1 20,5 18,5 13,7 9,7 10,1 1984 8,2 6 8,1 8,3 17,4 19,1 20, 6 19,6 19,7 15,9 11,5 8,7 1985 7,5 1,6 5,1 12,3 16,9 18,9 19, 6 21,3 17,1 12,4 12,8 6,4 1986 8,5 6,7 5,9 11,3 13,2 20,5 21,1 22,3 18 13,7 8,5 8,9 1987 5,8 7 3,9 9,6 15 19 21,7 20,3 18,3 13,3 12,4 6,9 1988 7,2 6,3 8,9 10,5 14,5 19,8 22,8 21,7 18,2 13,9 7,9 7 1989 3,9 5,9 8,6 14,6 15,7 19,2 21,2 22,2 18,5 14 10,2 7,3 1990 4,2 6,1 7,8 12,3 14,2 19,5 21, 5 20,7 17,2 14,6 14,1 7,9 1991 5,8 4,5 5,3 10 15,3 18,9 22 21,8 17,7 15,4 11,7 9,2 1992 4,2 3,2 7,3 11,9 12,6 19,9 20, 1 22,4 17,1 17,7 10,5 4,9 1993 4,6 2,7 7,6 10,2 14,3 19,4 20,2 21,4 18,2 16,1 8,5 5 1994 7,9 5,5 8,1 13,6 16,6 19,1 22,2 22,6 21,4 17,4 9,2 9,6 1995 6,8 7,3 8,9 11,3 16,1 20,4 21,8 21,8 19,2 13 8,6 6,7 1996 4,7 6,1 3,9 8,7 17,5 18,8 22, 2 21,7 18,3 13,6 12,4 7,6 1997 6,5 4,6 4,8 8,6 16,1 19,7 22, 2 20,5 15,8 14,4 11,6 10,8 206 1998 6,9 5,3 6,2 14,7 15,6 20,6 22,3 22,9 19,1 16,4 12 8,4 1999 7,3 6,8 8,7 13,6 15,6 20,2 23, 4 22,6 19,1 14,8 10,4 6,9 2000 2,8 5,9 7,2 13,5 15,1 18, 7 23,1 21,6 19 14,3 14 11 2001 8,1 7,3 12,7 12,4 15 19,9 24, 2 23,2 20,1 15,1 11,1 9,3 2002 4,6 9 10 9,4 14,9 20,6 24,3 22,4 19,8 16,1 13,2 5,9 2003 8 2,9 3,7 8,7 15,4 19,9 22, 4 22,3 17,6 15,9 10,8 7,3 2004 5,6 5,4 7,9 11,7 14,7 19, 5 21,1 21,7 19 15,6 12 8,9 2005 7,1 6,7 6,5 11,9 15,7 18,8 22, 8 23,8 19,6 13,6 10,4 8,7 2006 4,2 5,3 8,6 10,8 15,2 20 21, 5 24,5 19,4 16,2 10,3 7,7 2007 9,1 7,3 9,2 9,8 17,2 21,7 23,4 23,7 19,8 14,7 11 6,9 2008 4 5,4 11,6 15 14,1 20,4 22, 4 23,2 19,3 16,1 12,7 9,2 2009 7,6 7,8 7,9 9,4 15,9 20,8 23 21,4 19,2 17,9 12,4 11,2 2010 7,8 9,2 8 11,5 17,4 21 23,9 25,7 20,3 14,4 17,1 11,7 Average 6,18 5,76 7,48 11,29 15,40 19,79 22 22,05 18,71 15,14 11,32 8,41 Source: Anonymous, 2011, Report of Zonguldak Meteorological Service, Zonguldak 207 APPENDIX-IX 30 YAERS of PRECIPITATION for ZONGULDAK CITY January February March April May June July August September October November December 1980 214,8 60,9 155,6 32, 4 75,2 27,3 11,9 48 88,8 84,4 173,7 197,5 1981 167,4 120,7 110,5 41,2 39,7 26,2 42,8 75,8 11 0,3 212,8 119,2 186,8 1982 160,4 57,7 152 72,7 30,8 25,6 83,3 251,2 12,8 58,1 64,8 175 1983 223 85,8 22,7 51,3 20,9 19,3 253,3 87,8 20,6 206,6 115,6 84,7 1984 127,6 69,2 64,7 149,8 19 120 207,5 111,8 6,3 108,1 172,6 40,9 1985 150,7 161,8 28,2 63,1 43 78,5 51, 7 20,8 45,1 255,1 62,2 136,3 1986 141,9 101 18 31,3 40 124,9 41, 6 1,8 25 181,1 163,9 126,6 1987 228,4 53,1 146,7 84, 8 48,2 62,1 65,8 111,6 0,9 211,8 113,1 231,7 1988 72,1 87,7 87,5 60,6 36,4 50,2 240,5 28,4 60,9 220,8 271,7 127,7 1989 50,2 55,6 28,2 15 70,5 51,5 40, 2 8,7 332,3 224,5 275,8 100,7 1990 94,5 59,2 58,7 65,7 83,9 81,7 91,2 31,7 221,5 164,8 91,8 143,4 1991 76,8 104,9 35,1 73,7 112,5 145 145,6 114,6 29 9,8 212,2 110,4 201,3 1992 68,4 112,2 78,3 51,1 36,1 180 133,2 0,4 95 ,3 157,2 163,5 141,2 1993 104,8 72,6 50,5 30,7 59,2 33,7 12,9 61,8 62,6 23,8 200,6 105,6 1994 116,8 39 45,2 38,8 85 64 2 75,5 0,6 243,8 301,7 183,2 1995 152,7 52,1 157,5 84, 1 14,2 74,3 142,4 35,4 143,5 112 290,4 96,5 1996 102,2 84,5 125,7 68,2 22,7 38,3 42,1 77,3 201,4 193,1 34,3 211,7 1997 72,9 104 121,1 155,2 33,1 105,4 223,4 341 24,6 275,5 44,7 165,2 208 1998 117,9 96,9 130,8 38,4 229,9 64,4 100 4,3 115,9 169,8 131 225,4 1999 82,6 127,8 65,2 13,6 32,3 152,4 19,3 108,5 10 4,1 144,8 205,5 74,5 2000 234,7 83,2 131,2 63,9 30,2 227,5 26,3 270,5 35 3,2 148,1 9,4 161,9 2001 51,2 93,1 84,2 68,4 64,6 48,4 26,1 86,1 190,3 34,9 246 266,2 2002 115,8 14,6 63 61,6 47,4 48,4 94, 7 151,6 139,5 203,3 93,8 98,8 2003 99,9 129,7 84 62,5 14,6 0 92 11,4 200 148,9 117,5 174,8 2004 173,1 103 116,3 31,9 72,4 82,8 17,7 239,5 61,9 44,3 289,3 125,5 2005 227,9 79,5 105,4 52, 3 15,2 87,8 69,5 13,3 125,8 294 176,1 154,5 2006 128,2 139,6 80,9 4, 5 30,9 59,4 29,7 7,8 120,2 76 181,2 65,2 2007 136,2 33,6 75,3 45 51 53 34 159,6 134,5 174,2 206,8 169,6 2008 87,8 101,3 154,7 24, 8 60,1 49,7 46,8 2,6 242,4 96 136 156,5 2009 123,9 140,3 130,2 59,9 35,4 53,8 168,1 9,1 167,3 78,6 120 148,2 2010 186,6 86,4 142,9 40, 9 10,9 72,1 9,4 5,8 172,1 171,2 26 209,3 Average 131,98 87,45 91,95 56, 05 50,49 74,44 82,74 82,38 125,15 159,03 151,89 151,17 Source: Anonymous, 2011, Report of Zonguldak Meteorological Service, Zonguldak