Geographische Grundlagen und Raumplanung in Entwicklungsländern
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Item The potential of customary spatial unit administration for sustainable development(2014-08-06) Abdulharis, Rizqi; Schmidt-Kallert, Einhard; Zevenbergen, JaapItem The role of local institutions in industrial cluster development in Indonesia(2014-04-23) Nugroho, Prihadi; Schmidt-Kallert, Einhard; Hirsch-Kreinsen, HartmutFor decades cluster approach has been an insightful notion of development which has drawn much attention across disciplines. Its theoretical developments and empirical practices never end with satisfying results and consensus (Cumbers & MacKinnon, 2004). No matter how clusters emerge, either in developed or developing countries, urban or rural regions, high technology or labour intensive industries, large or small firms, global or local scales, it has always existed over time and is highly associated with localities, just as what is happening in Indonesia. The cluster approach has re-emerged in recent Indonesian public policy making and sparked the interest of various government agencies. Despite government recognition, it has in fact been implemented ubiquitously and cluster phenomena can be found in many local regions of Indonesia. Regarding such particularities, the common grounds to understand the cluster phenomena are supposed to be placed on localities. The prolonged government ignorance over the role of local institutions is the central issue in this research. Repetitive action with less understanding of the local institutional setting has been the source of problems in recent cluster policy making. Instead of learning from policy failures in the past and finding alternative ways, the government seems to continue with its one-size-fits-all paradigm in promoting cluster policies. With regard to such policy inadequacy, this research was designed to explore the needs for cluster enhancement stemming from the conditions of prevailing local institutions. This research aims to figure out the influences of the prevailing local institutions on cluster performance. I used a multiple-case study approach to examine three Javanese batik clusters in two different regions, i.e. Kampung Laweyan, Kampung Kauman (Surakarta Municipality), and Lasem Area (Rembang Regency). It was chosen rather than a single case study approach primarily because the cluster phenomena demonstrate enormous variance and inconsistencies across localities. Regarding such locational divergence, the batik industry cluster is suitable to present how the local institutional framework overcomes the diversity. The unit of analysis in this research is batik cluster organisation. It consists of a core batik cluster organisation involving a community-based organisation and the likes of which is acting as a cluster management unit, individual batik firms, and the adjacent neighbourhood society. The batik industry clusters examined in the Kampung Laweyan, Kampung Kauman, and Lasem Area definitely support the Marshallian industrial district theory rather than the Porterian cluster theory. All cases benefit from the external economies of co-location emanating from a specialised batik labour market pooling and specific batik products. This passive engagement of clustering has brought the typical technical skills, evolutionary production processes, and distinguishable final products of each batik cluster to become the prominent features of the industry resulting from the local adaptation to an inherited batik tradition and external change over time. In addition, co-location does not automatically stimulate collectivism. In spite of promoting intensified inter-firm cooperation, each batik cluster has strengthened the renewed individual business networks. When joint marketing and batik promotion have appeared recently in the forms of exhibition events, cross-selling, and communal showrooms, these efforts were organised by the local batik cluster organisations to provide incentives for the local batik entrepreneurs and workers to support the so-called cluster programs. More importantly, the lack of inter-firm business linkages has falsified the presence of the clustering practice. The batik firm’s individual business networks tend to maintain exclusive connections to suppliers, subcontractors, and consumers. Instead of fostering broader participation from various actors, the batik firms are retaining their preferences to collaborate with trusted partners. Such circumstances have therefore led to the formation of peculiar local institutional frameworks to support the respective batik industry development. This individualistic behaviour has encouraged the local batik firms to compete freely without many interventions from the local batik cluster organisations as well as government agencies. Combined with an uncontrolled imitation process, it has unleashed greater creativity and innovation from the local batik firms to produce additional batik motifs and designs. On the other hand, this has also led to the separation of the local batik industry from the active engagement of neighbourhood society. Thus, the fusion between economic activity and society as suggested in the general cluster theory has not been proved yet in this research.Item Decentralization in Ethiopia(2012-07-04) Gemechu, Mulugeta Debebbe; Schmidt-Kallert, Einhard; Schuck, ChristophEthiopia officially launched the District Level Decentralization Program (DLDP) by the year 2002. The program flagged core objectives such as institutionalizing viable development centers at local levels, deepening devolution of power, enhancing the democratization process through broad-based participatory strategy, promoting good governance and improving service delivery. Since the inception of this program two strategic planning terms (one strategic term is five years) have already elapsed and the third is in a process. However, various program implementation reports and results on the ground narrowly justified the success of this program. Perception, conscious and voluntary participation of all the various stakeholders in general and communities at grassroots level in particular were not as apparent as initially desired. Thus, a cross-sectional, embedded single case study, which is essentially qualitative, was conducted in Dendi district of Oromia State to find out how this program proceeds, focusing on: institutional strengths, transfer of authority and resource, implementation, perception and participation of the stakeholders and actual benefits gained at grassroots level. Data were collected through interviews, observation and focus group discussions. Conceptual analyses and explanations were presented to show how the program progressed and stumbling blocks encountered. While the theory of democratic decentralization was taken as a domain theory, theories such as neopatrimonialism, congruence, equilibrium view of institutions, sequential theory of decentralization and other theories relating to people’s participation were selectively reviewed in the literature and pervasively taken on when successive analyses, explanations and reflections were made. The findings indicate a need for more focused and planned approaches for the success of the program. Institutionalizing the district and the lowest tiers has not yet been achieved. While no inconsistency was observed in models used to transfer resources and authority, shortages and lack of dynamic capability of local implementers to properly utilize the power and resources transferred were evident at all levels. Perception and participation of stakeholders is an area that needs a paradigm shift. Achievements on the ground have not yet justified the efforts made or the program goals. Besides generating valuable ideas for scientific discourse, critical reflections and a set of proposals and recommendations - as possible solutions for some of the problems observed - have been provided in this work. Introduction of appropriate planning, enhancing the capability of local bodies to match the ever changing local and global conditions, rethinking on certain policy and program changes and meaningful participation of stakeholders, efficient use of available resources, etc. were among issues identified for consideration.Item Promoting women’s participation in decision-making at the local level.(2012-05-31) Anwar, Ibrahim A.; Kroës, Günter; Bliss, FankThis study was carried out in the context of participation in decision-making in the Barzan sub-district in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. It focused on women’s participation in decision-making from the perspective of gender and development. Democratic governance and decentralisation served as the main theoretical framework and pre-condition for analyzing participation. Though the Kurdistan region has been moving towards democracy, decentralisation and participatory governance since 1992, there is a clear disparity between the involvement of men and women in the process. The involvement of women in the decision-making process at the local level in Kurdish society is limited. Based on this, the study explored and analyzed women’s access to decision-making, their influence on the decision-making process, and their constraints and opportunities in the process. The study investigated and assessed a number of critical issues including socio-economic, political culture and institutional factors that influenced women’s participation in decision-making. Based on these, the study sought to find answers as to how the participation of women in decision-making can be promoted for enhanced development to ensure maximum efficiency in pursuing development goals; and also how the participation of women at the local level can lead to changes in strategies for development at the local level. The study was conducted in the villages of Shri and Zorgvan in the Barzan sub-district of Kurdistan Region in the Federal Republic of Iraq. The research was largely qualitative in nature also made use of a combination of inductive and deductive methods. The case study research approach was adopted in this study. Data was collected from primary and secondary sources. The required data was gathered through questionnaire, interviews, focus group discussions, participant observations and relevant documents from government, and civil society organizations institutions. Data was collected from multiple sources and with multiple methods to ensure triangulation and assure the quality of data. The study revealed that, the triangle of traditional cultural structure namely tribalism, religious and patriarchal issues integrated in a complex scheme and paralleled with long centralized mindset, has weakened the process of women’s participation in the decision-making process. Also, limit capacity of civil society, lack internal democracy of political parties, and decentralized power absorbed by the regional government have created power centres instead of power trickling down to the local level. It again came to light that decentralisation as a strategy changes structures and power relations among levels of government and key stakeholders and that negative aspects of traditional culture and the tenets of democracy do not jointly work together. In reality, it is difficult to bring them together to ensure harmony. These findings reconfirm Bernard Lewis’s assertion that, implementing democracy within strong negative aspects of a traditional cultural system is like attempting to sow the seeds of 21st century political institutions in the soil of 15th century political culture. Based on these findings, two sets of recommendations are offered. As a key recommendation, there is the need to formulate a comprehensive development and gender-aware policy and as well as restricting and reorganizing the functions of regional, provincial, district, and sub-district level institutions. Finally, there is also the need to graft democratic decentralisation tenets on the best aspects of traditional cultural practices at the local level, creating and implementing quota strategies, building the capacity of staff of civil society organisations and government at different levels and democratizing the practices of multi-party coalition government to improve the participation of women in the decision-making process.Item Urban upgrading intervention and barrio integration in Caracas, Venezuela(2012-03-29) Ayala, Alonso; Kreibich, Volker; Schmidt-Kallert, Einhard“Spatial segregation is the reflection of social structures onto space”. Understood as a negative condition the socio-spatial segregation of urban dwellers as the opposing form to urban integration has become a major hindrance to both functional urban development and the inclusive vision that cities are supposed to foster. This premise forms the underpinning rational to construct this dissertation using the situation of the informal settlements of Caracas, Venezuela, as its subject of analysis. Like in many other Latin American major cities the rapid and unregulated urbanization of Caracas is compounded by social polarization, socio-economic inequalities and urban fragmentation. Inefficient government responses to provide large portions of the urban population with adequate access to housing have resulted in the formation and consolidation of informally-built areas outside the purview of urban regulations. Known in Venezuela as barrios de ranchos, these settlements are the spatial manifestation of urban poverty, social exclusion and precarious urban conditions characterized by poor quality housing, poor access to basic services, insecure property rights, and ambiguous citizenship, all of this contributing to their lack of integration to the surrounding city. The physical and socio-economic integration and inclusion of these urban dwellers represent a tremendous challenge for policymakers, professionals and civil society alike. Particular attention must be devoted to them in order to understand why the situation has evolved into what is today with the purpose of envisioning strategies aimed at integrating them to mainstream urban development. Actions to remedy this situation have fallen under projects and programmes implemented in a piecemeal basis, tackling mostly the physical improvement of these settlements. Such actions, at least in the Venezuelan context, have been many times tainted by political patronage and manipulation. It is argued in this dissertation that an integrated, holistic and multi-disciplinary approach denuded from political patronage is necessary to activate the integration process of these settlements. In this context, urban upgrading interventions have assumed a special significance in the process of spatial and socio-economic integration of barrios. For the purpose of this dissertation a specific upgrading project in one informal settlement in Caracas has been chosen to both explore the meaning of integration and how to actually achieve it by drawing up the lessons derived from the project‟s planning and implementation process. The project, known as the Caracas Barrio Upgrading Project (CAMEBA), has been undertaken in two major barrio agglomerations of Caracas in an attempt towards devising a humane and integrated barrio renewal policy. The empirical evaluation of CAMEBA is believed to offer valuable insights and positive lessons for future implementation of urban integrationist strategies. The main objective of this dissertation is therefore to explore the meaning of urban integration using the implementation process of project CAMEBA as its subject of research. In order to operationalize the research, the theorethical underpinnings of Polanyi´s modes of economic integration were used as the base to construct the analytical model to be tested in the field. The articulation of such model was guided on the other hand by a European research on urban integration known as the URBEX project, which applied Polanyi‟s model in spatial terms and emphazised the interplay of three functional domains as the key to socio-economic integration, viz. the State´s redistributive policies, public reciprocity and the dynamics of market exchange. Even though the theoretical underpinnings of the model were used by the URBEX project in the context of Western cities in Europe, this dissertation attempted to adapt the analytical framework envisaged by this project to the particular situation of the barrios of Caracas. Through this theoretical exercise a number of variables and indicators were developed to measure the degree of socio-economic, political and spatial integration of the barrio intervened by the upgrading project of CAMEBA. The complexity of the issue called for an understanding of the different forces and processes behind the social, economic, political and spatial exclusion of the large portion of the Venezuelan urban dwellers that live in barrios. The exploration thus far points out to the fact that urban upgrading endeavours in informal settlements in the context analysed can only be sustainable and relevant if the community being intervened is able to own the process and become the main stakeholder of the intervention. The study reveals that the process of barrio upgrading must be activated and sustained over a period of time in order to enable barrio inhabitants to realize their much cherished aspirations including the achievement of a sense of socio-economic and political integration and a sustained improvement in the quality of their lives. Quality access to basic and physical infrastructure, socio-political recognition of barrios and fostering of proactive community organizations while enabling their meaningful participation in the barrio upgrading process emerge as the major preconditions for working towards the urban integration of barrios. The analytical model articulated in the study stands out as a useful contribution to the scientific debate regarding urban integration, and it is expected to inform policymakers and urban specialists about posible paths towards the integration of informal settlements.Item Wiederaufbau des ländlichen Raumes unter den besonderen Bedingungen der Krise in Kurdistan / Irak(2012-01-16) Sinemillioglu, Hasan; Kreibich, Volker; Schmidt-Kallert, EinhardWiederaufbau ist eine räumlich soziale Tätigkeit, die meist einem Krieg oder einer Naturkatastrophe folgt. Kriegerische Auseinandersetzungen verursachen räumliche Zerstörungen; darüber hinaus stellen sie meist eine Zäsur in der Entwicklung einer Gesellschaft dar. Diese Zäsur bedeutet eine komplexe Veränderung nicht nur im Hinblick auf die räumliche Struktur. Auch die soziale Struktur der betroffenen Gesellschaften wird starken Veränderungen unterworfen. Die anschließende Zeitperiode ist durch eine Suche gekennzeichnet, die äußerst kompliziert verlaufen kann. Dabei überlagern sich viele Prozesse, die sich aufgrund der weggebrochenen Herrschaftsstrukturen (Weber, Politik und Gesellschaft, 2006) nicht selten widersprechen. Diese Anomie (Parsons, the structure of social action, 1969), mit anderen Worten der Kampf aller gegen alle, bezeichnet die Periode eines undefinierten Überganges, eine liminale Phase (Turner, das Ritual, 2005) im Leben der betroffenen Gesellschaften nach der Krise. Diese Liminalitätsperiode stellt bezüglich der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung eine große Herausforderung für die Gesellschaft dar; insbesondere das Fehlen der Herrschaftsstrukturen erschwert die räumliche Gestaltung, weil die Orientierungen (policies) entweder unvollständig sind oder ganz fehlen. Bei Nachzügler-Gesellschaften (Bendix, 1969) ist die Krise ein Beschleuniger des sozialen Wandels (social change); wenn die Gesellschaften vom Traditionellen in die Moderne streben und dabei kriegerische Auseinandersetzungen erleben, entstehen Unklarheiten bei der Herausbildung neuer Strukturen, die oft durch eine Kulturdiffusion (Parsons) aber auch durch direkte Interventionen beeinflusst werden. Die Entwicklung in den kurdischen Gebieten im Nordirak ist ein Beispiel dafür. Die gesellschaftliche Entwicklung wurde durch massive Eingriffe von außen in einer Weise beeinflusst, dass diese Gesellschaft eine Zwangsmodernisierung erleben musste, in deren Folge ihre angestammte soziokulturelle Lebenswelt (Habermas) fast vollkommen zerstört wurde. Diese Zwangsmodernisierung schuf eine neue Lebenswelt, die wiederum durch Eingriffe von außen eine radikale Veränderung erfuhr. Noch die Erfahrungen aus ihrer alten Lebenswelt in Erinnerung, aber doch mit einer unverkennbaren Akzeptanz ihrer neuen Lebenswelt, kehrten mehrere hunderttausend Menschen in ihren zerstörten früheren Lebensraum zurück. Im Spannungsfeld dieser traditionellen und modernen Lebenswelten wurde ein Wiederaufbau begonnen, der klare Orientierungshilfen und Entscheidungen verlangte, die aber aufgrund der zusammengebrochenen Herrschaftsstrukturen (state failure) fehlten. Die Rückkehr der ehemals Deportierten in ihre vollkommen zerstörten Heimatgemeinden wurde durch die internationale Gemeinschaft auf die Art begleitet, dass zwar die Grundversorgung sichergestellt wurde, die politischen Strukturen jedoch unbeachtet blieben und so sich selbst überlassen wurden. Dies hatte den Fortbestand der charismatisch-traditionalen Herrschaft im Irak zur Folge, während in den kurdischen Teilen des Landes der Aufbau einer demokratisch orientierten Herrschaftsstruktur angestrebt wurde. Dieser Dualismus schuf eine besondere Konstellation, die beispiellos ist und die Frage aufdrängt, wie in ein und demselben Herrschaftsgebiet sich widersprechende Herrschaftsstrukturen gleichzeitig existieren können? Eine weitere Besonderheit ist, dass der Prozess des ländlichen Wiederaufbaus durch diesen Versuch, auch eine demokratisch legitimierte Herrschaft aufzubauen, überlagert wurde. Da diese Herrschaft eigentlich den Rahmen für den Wiederaufbau hätte liefern sollen, aber dazu nicht imstande war, fand letzterer buchstäblich in einem leeren, ja fast strukturlosen Herrschaftsraum statt. So hat der ländliche Wiederaufbau seinen eigenen Weg gesucht, indem die Rückkehrer ihre Strategie des kurzfristigen Überlebens fortgesetzt haben. Die neu entstandenen Ortschaften waren damit keine überlebensfähigen Siedlungen und nicht Bestandteile übergreifende Strukturen. Das nach der Krise entstandene Machtvakuum, „die Suspendierung des Alltagslebens“ (Dahrendorf), stellt eine besondere Konstellation der sich überlagernden Prozesse nach der Krise in Kurdistan 1991 dar. Insbesondere der soziale Übergang vom Traditionellen zur Moderne (Aufbau einer modernen Autonomie) und der Neuaufbau des ländlichen Raumes (Wiederaufbau der Dörfer) fordern die beteiligten externen (Alliierten-Kräfte, UN-Organisationen, internationale Hilfswerke) und einheimischen (kurdische Politik) Aktore heraus: Wie kann eine zukunftsfeste räumliche Neugestaltung aussehen und woher sollen die dafür notwendigen Orientierungsentscheidungen stammen? Dies ist die eigentliche Untersuchungsfrage und damit der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit. Das Gebiet, auf das sich diese Untersuchung bezieht, umfasst die Gebiete Amadiya Ost, Barzan, Berwari Bala, Nahle, Welati Jeri und Zebar. Das bergige Gebiet bietet mit seinen fruchtbaren Tälern, Almen und vielen Wasserquellen eine gute Grundlage für eine bäuerliche Tätigkeit. Der Wiederaufbauprozess der ländlichen Regionen beinhaltet auch die Chance, dass die ehemals Vertriebenen, getragen von Elan und Motivation der Rückkehr, ihre Potentiale entfalten und durch Steigerung der Selbstorganisation den Wiederaufbau in die Hand nehmen. Eine partizipative Planung bei der Entwicklung der Regionen könnte so möglich werden, vorausgesetzt, der Organisationsgrad der Rückkehrer kann gesteigert werden und so konkrete Formen annehmen. Die Arbeit des Dortmunder Vereins DhK zeigt, wie diese Chancen auf regionaler Ebene genutzt werden können und wie aus der traditionell starken Identität der Gebietszugehörigkeit regionale Managementstrukturen herausgebildet werden können. Diese Gebietszugehörigkeit bot die Grundlage für die Bildung einer Vertretung der Region (Gebietskomitee), die DhK initiieren konnte. Damit wurde eine Plattform zum kommunikativen Handeln (Habermas, 1995) mit den Rückkehrern geschaffen. Unter den oben geschilderten Bedingungen konnten jedoch diese Möglichkeiten nicht zufriedenstellend und nicht in allen Regionen genutzt werden. Die Überwindung des Machtvakuums, die Periode der Anti-Struktur, verlangt eine gezielte Unterstützung von Seiten der internationalen Akteure, weil den einheimischen Kräften für die Bewältigung der Transformation und des gleichzeitigen Aufbaus von modernen Staatsfunktionen Know-how und Kapazitäten fehlen. Solange eine strukturelle Orientierung nicht gegeben ist, kann der Wiederaufbauprozess der ländlichen Regionen nicht zukunftsweisend gestaltet werden. Der Entfaltung der Potentiale und der Umsetzung von raumplanerischen Konzepten werden damit Grenzen gesetzt, wie die Entwicklung im Gebiet Berwari Bala zeigt. Insbesondere den Diskontinuitäten der Besitzverhältnisse und den Kontinuitäten der traditionellen Werte der Vergangenheit müssen neue Orientierungen entgegengesetzt werden. Ein wesentliches Merkmal der Entwicklung in Kurdistan ist, dass sich die Strukturierung eines völligen Neuanfangs von einem Prozess der Wandlung bestehender Strukturen grundsätzlich unterscheidet. Der Neuanfang, wie in Berwari Bala, bietet größere Chancen – er bedarf aber auch eines entschieden intensiveren Einsatzes von materiellen, also sozialen und fi nanziellen (Weber), Ressourcen. Zur Entwicklung von sozialen Ressourcen braucht es klare Vorstellungen über die »Modelle für Wirklichkeit« (Geertz, 1987) und die Bereitstellung der notwendigen fi nanziellen Ressourcen. Basierend auf den theoretischen Betrachtungen über den sozialen Wandel wurde die Entwicklung in den wiederentstehenden Gebieten analysiert. Dabei wurde die Rolle der Kulturdiffusion (exogene Anleihen) für den Wandel im Allgemeinen und die Rolle der exogenen Kräfte im Besonderen für Kurdistan untersucht. Die Entwicklung im Nachkriegsdeutschland, im Kosovo und in Timor-Leste wurde als Beispiel für eine mögliche Herangehensweise und Assistenz durch externe Aktore betrachtet. Neben der Notwendigkeit fehlender Assistenz ist hervorzuheben, dass die Communitas nach der Krise in Kurdistan, hier die Rückkehrer, unorganisiert und damit nicht in der Lage sind, die Entwicklung mitzubestimmen. Daher ist die Entfaltung eines kommunikativen Handelns nicht möglich. Ein grundsätzliches Problem der räumlichen Entwicklung entsteht durch die geringe Größe vieler wiederaufgebauter Siedlungen. Die Vernetzung der verschiedenen Produktions- und Versorgungsstrukturen kann die Schwächen der Kleinteiligkeit der Siedlungen überwinden. Dies setzt voraus, dass Selbstverwaltungsstrukturen auf „Nahiye“-Ebene, einem Kreis, der mehrere Dörfer umfasst, entwickelt und gestärkt werden. Das ist auch im Sinne von gesicherten eigenen fi nanziellen Ressourcen. Die oben beschriebene Phase der Nachkrisenperiode stellt eine enorme Herausforderung für alle Aktore einer räumlichen Gestaltung dar, bietet aber auch große Chancen und Handlungsmöglichkeiten, die noch weitgehend unerforscht sind. Die besonderen Bedingungen des verdichteten sozialen Wandels dieser Periode wären ein äußerst lohnender Gegenstand eines umfassenden Forschungsvorhabens.Item The role of local government in local economic development promotion at the district level in Ghana(2011-11-14) Oduro-Ofori, Eric; Kroés, Günter; Braimah, ImoroThis study investigated the role of local government in local economic development (LED). Local governments in the developed world have been promoting the LED of areas under their control for decades unlike their counterparts in the developing world. With the advent of decentralisation in many countries of the developing world, many of their local governments have also gotten involved in promoting LED. Despite this, their contributions have been negligible if not totally absent. As the implementation and practice of decentralisation deepens in Ghana, local governments, locally called District Assemblies have the responsibility of ensuring the total development of the areas under their jurisdiction. Despite the ample evidence indicating their increasing effectiveness in delivering social services, they have not been able to effectively promote LED. This study therefore set out to find out why these local governments are not able to effectively promote LED at the local level in Ghana. This study was necessitated by the fact there exist few and less comprehensive studies in LED with regards to the involvement of local governments in the country. There is also the need to examine the persistent ineffectiveness of local governments in LED, their challenges, basic conditonalities, and the critical way forward to mitigate these. The Ejisu-Juaben Municipal Assembly (local government) of the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality of the republic of Ghana was the case studied. The study analysed how the local government carried out its LED promotional drive, its capacity, the involvement of other stakeholders and other factors influencing its involvement in the process. It employed the use of mainly qualitative research methodology. The case study approach was adopted as the research strategy. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used and a variety of methods including interviews, documentary analysis, observations, group discussions and questionnaire administration were employed to ensure triangulation and the quality of data collected and analysed. The study revealed that, though the local government played several roles in LED, these were mainly traditional and not directly effective to rapidly address the LED needs of the municipality. The various strategies and tools applied were also limited in scope. The local government was also less committed to the implementation of programmes and projects stated in its development plans that were of direct benefit to economic entities in municipality. More so, it had inadequate capacity in terms of funds, logistics and human resources. In addition, it depended to a larger extent on the central government for most of its capacity needs. It also had a weak institutional set-up for LED promotion which affected negatively the coordination of LED initiatives. The LED process was also not well integrated into the local government‘s development planning process. Moreover, the local government‘s involvement of other stakeholders in its LED process was limited to informing and consulting. It maintained a weak relationship with local stakeholders and a higher one with external stakeholders. There was also the absence of a clear platform for stakeholder engagement by the local government in its LED process. Other external factors influencing its performance in the LED process included the absence of a national policy framework to guide its involvement in LED, hindered access to the utilisation and control of certain local resources and the inadequate capacity of local economic entities in the municipality. The study therefore recommends that for the local government to be effective in the process of LED, it must put in pragmatic and relevant strategies and tools, have the needed capacity, a strong institutional set-up and should consciously involve all the necessary and potential stakeholders in all the stages of the LED process. This should also be complemented by efforts of the central government to strengthen the local government in the process of LED.Item Mobilitätsverhalten von Jugendlichen(Universität Dortmund, 1998-07-28) Groß, Sven